Trend AnalysisManagement & Business

Venture Capital and Innovation in India: How Caste Institutions Shape Startup Investment

India's startup ecosystem has attracted over $100 billion in venture capital since 2020, but investment distribution is geographically and socially uneven. A new study reveals that caste and tribal institutions moderate the VC-innovation linkโ€”with implications for who benefits from India's tech boom.

By Sean K.S. Shin
This blog summarizes research trends based on published paper abstracts. Specific numbers or findings may contain inaccuracies. For scholarly rigor, always consult the original papers cited in each post.

India has emerged as the world's third-largest startup ecosystem, with over 100,000 registered startups, more than 100 unicorns, and cumulative venture capital investment exceeding $100 billion since 2020. The narrative of Indian tech entrepreneurshipโ€”from Bangalore's Silicon Valley ambitions to the digital India initiativeโ€”is one of the global economy's most frequently cited success stories. But a closer examination reveals that India's innovation gains are unevenly distributed, and the distribution follows patterns that echo the country's oldest social stratification system.

The Research Landscape: VC, Innovation, and Institutional Context

Mertzanis & Putrevu (2025), with 2 citations, provide what appears to be among among the earliest empirical studies to examine how caste and tribal institutions moderate the relationship between venture capital availability and entrepreneurial investment across Indian states. Using the national innovation system (NIS) framework and a comprehensive measure of VC availability spanning 2000โ€“2021, they find:

The baseline finding: VC availability has a significant positive effect on startup investment across Indian states, consistent with the international literature on VC as an innovation catalyst.

The moderation finding: The positive VC-investment relationship is significantly weaker in states with higher proportions of Scheduled Caste (SC) and Scheduled Tribe (ST) populations. This moderation effect persists after controlling for state-level GDP, education levels, infrastructure quality, and industry composition.

The authors propose several mechanisms through which caste and tribal institutions may moderate VC effectiveness:

  • Network exclusion: VC investment relies heavily on personal networks for deal sourcing. If entrepreneurial networks are stratified along caste lines, talented entrepreneurs from lower-caste backgrounds may never encounter VC investors, regardless of the quality of their ideas.
  • Collateral and credit history: VC investment often follows initial self-funding or angel investment. SC/ST entrepreneurs, with lower average household wealth due to historical discrimination, face greater barriers to the initial capital accumulation that precedes VC funding.
  • Human capital channeling: Caste-based social expectations and educational streaming may direct talent from certain communities away from entrepreneurship and toward more "secure" employmentโ€”government positions, established companiesโ€”even when entrepreneurial ability is present.
  • Regional clustering: VC investment concentrates in a few urban centers (Bangalore, Mumbai, Delhi-NCR, Hyderabad) that may have demographic profiles different from the national average, creating a spatial correlation between VC availability and caste composition that reflects geography rather than causation.
  • The authors note that the last mechanismโ€”spatial correlationโ€”is a potential confound that their state-level analysis cannot fully resolve. However, their robustness checks suggest that the moderation effect persists even when controlling for urbanization rates and the presence of major tech hubs.

    Critical Analysis: Claims and Evidence

    <
    ClaimEvidenceVerdict
    VC availability drives startup investment in IndiaMertzanis & Putrevu: significant positive main effectโœ… Supported
    Caste institutions moderate the VC-innovation linkMertzanis & Putrevu: significant interaction termโœ… Supported โ€” though causal mechanism uncertain
    Network exclusion is the primary mechanismAuthors' interpretation; not directly testedโš ๏ธ Uncertain โ€” plausible but competing mechanisms exist
    India's startup ecosystem benefits all social groups equallyMertzanis & Putrevu: evidence of differential effectsโŒ Refuted

    What This Study Can and Cannot Show

    The strength of the Mertzanis & Putrevu study is its novelty: it is among the first to bring quantitative evidence to a relationship that has been discussed qualitatively but rarely measured. The limitation is that state-level analysis cannot capture the individual-level mechanisms through which caste affects entrepreneurial outcomes. An individual-level studyโ€”tracking founders' caste backgrounds, network structures, and funding outcomesโ€”would provide stronger evidence for specific mechanisms but faces obvious data collection challenges given the sensitivity of caste information.

    The study also raises methodological questions about the NIS framework itself. Traditional NIS analyses focus on formal institutions (patent systems, university-industry linkages, R&D tax incentives). Mertzanis & Putrevu's inclusion of informal institutions (caste and tribal structures) represents a conceptual extension that is sociologically important but methodologically challengingโ€”informal institutions are harder to measure and their effects are harder to isolate.

    Open Questions and Future Directions

  • Individual-level analysis: Can founder-level data (through anonymized surveys or administrative records) test the network exclusion, collateral, and human capital channeling mechanisms directly?
  • Policy interventions: India's government has implemented SC/ST entrepreneurship schemes (Stand-Up India, Venture Capital Fund for Scheduled Castes). Do these programs effectively counter the VC-caste moderation? Evaluation evidence is scarce.
  • Cross-country comparison: Do analogous social stratification systems (race in the US, ethnicity in Malaysia, class in the UK) produce similar moderation effects on VC-innovation links?
  • Digital platforms as equalizers: Do online startup platforms, accelerators, and crowdfunding mechanisms reduce caste-based network barriers by creating alternative deal-sourcing channels?
  • Intersectionality: Gender intersects with caste in complex ways. How does the VC-innovation-caste dynamic differ for women entrepreneurs from different caste backgrounds?
  • Implications for Researchers and Policymakers

    For India's policymakers and startup ecosystem builders, the Mertzanis & Putrevu findings argue that VC growth alone will not equalize innovation opportunity. Targeted interventionsโ€”inclusive accelerator programs, mentorship networks that cross caste boundaries, and VC funds with explicit diversity mandatesโ€”may be needed to ensure that India's startup boom benefits the full breadth of its talent pool.

    For innovation researchers, the study demonstrates that NIS frameworks which focus exclusively on formal institutions miss important determinants of innovation performance. Informal institutionsโ€”cultural norms, social stratification systems, community networksโ€”shape who innovates, who gets funded, and who captures the returns from innovation.

    For VC practitioners, the practical implication is not that caste-conscious investing is required, but that caste-blind investing in a caste-stratified society may inadvertently reproduce existing inequalities. Active outreach to underrepresented founder communities is not charityโ€”it is access to a talent pool that network-dependent deal sourcing systematically underserves.

    References (3)

    [1] Mertzanis, C. & Putrevu, J. (2025). Venture capital, innovation, and entrepreneurial investment in India: The moderating role of caste and tribal institutions. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 26, 1320859.
    [2] Rajamoorthi, R. (2025). Tech-Driven Entrepreneurship in India and Emerging Economy Challenges. Journal of Digital Marketing and Communication, 5(1), 122305.
    [3] Kumar, A. & Rastogi, S. (2025). The Role of Innovation in Shaping Entrepreneurial Ecosystems in the Indian Economy. International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology, 7(5), 56212.

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