Trend AnalysisEconomics & FinanceMixed Methods

Fintech and Financial Inclusion: Unequal Benefits in Developing Countries

Mobile money accounts now outnumber traditional bank accounts in several Sub-Saharan African nations. In Kenya, M-Pesa processes more transactions than the country's commercial banking system combi...

By Sean K.S. Shin
This blog summarizes research trends based on published paper abstracts. Specific numbers or findings may contain inaccuracies. For scholarly rigor, always consult the original papers cited in each post.

Mobile money accounts now outnumber traditional bank accounts in several Sub-Saharan African nations. In Kenya, M-Pesa processes more transactions than the country's commercial banking system combined. The narrative is compelling: fintech leapfrogs legacy infrastructure, bringing the unbanked into the financial system. But the research tells a more complicated story. The benefits of fintech-driven financial inclusion are realโ€”and they are distributed unevenly.

The Research Landscape

The Aggregate Promise

Azmeh and Al-Raeei (2024), publishing in PLOS ONE provide the most rigorous cross-country evidence. Using panel regression with Panel-Corrected Standard Errors across developing nations, they find that fintech and financial inclusion operate as both complements and substitutes depending on institutional context. A 1% increase in fintech adoption is associated with measurable improvements in the financial inclusion indexโ€”but the effect is not uniform. Countries with stronger regulatory frameworks and higher baseline digital literacy capture disproportionately larger gains.

Mashoene, Tweneboah, and Schaling (2025), publishing in Cogent Social Sciences construct a new financial inclusion index using Principal Component Analysis across 28 emerging and developing economies. Their System GMM model confirms that a 1% increase in fintech leads to a 0.1772 unit rise in the financial inclusion index. The finding is statistically robustโ€”but the authors also identify that education levels, GNI per capita, and broad money to GDP ratio significantly predict barriers to inclusion.

Where Benefits Concentrate

Mpofu (2024), published in the International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues offers the most comprehensive assessment of Industry 4.0's impact on digital financial services in developing countries. The analysis reveals a consistent pattern: fintech adoption benefits cluster among the "near-bankable"โ€”populations who were already close to formal financial access but lacked convenient channels. The truly marginalizedโ€”rural populations without smartphones, women in patriarchal economies with restricted financial autonomy, elderly populations with limited digital literacyโ€”often remain excluded even as aggregate inclusion numbers improve.

The Digital Divide Within Inclusion

Setyanti, Khoiruddin, and Finuliyah (2025) examine Indonesian household-level microdata and find that only 5.48% of households report using fintech services. The adoption determinants are telling: education, urban residence, and existing digital infrastructure access are the strongest predictors. This suggests that fintech may accelerate existing patterns of inclusion rather than disrupt them.

Khan, Zeb, and Kamal (2025) investigate the mediating role of socioeconomic status in fintech adoption. Their findings indicate that socioeconomic disparities actively shape individuals' capacity to engage with digital financial solutionsโ€”fintech does not neutralize pre-existing inequality but interacts with it.

Critical Analysis: Claims and Evidence

<
ClaimEvidenceAssessment
Fintech increases financial inclusion in developing economiesAzmeh & Al-Raeei (2024): panel regression across developing nations; Mashoene et al. (2025): GMM model, 28 EMDEsSupported โ€” consistent cross-country evidence
Benefits accrue disproportionately to the near-bankableMpofu (2024): comprehensive review; Setyanti et al. (2025): 5.48% household adoption in IndonesiaSupported โ€” multiple data sources converge
Digital literacy is a binding constraintMashoene et al. (2025): education as key barrier; Khan et al. (2025): SES as mediatorSupported โ€” identified across methodologies
Fintech alone reduces povertyAzmeh (2025): positive association but institutional dependencePartially supported โ€” conditional on institutional quality
Gender gap narrows with fintechKumar et al. (2024): women's fintech adoption barriers in rural IndiaMixed โ€” barriers persist, some progress in urban areas

Open Questions and Future Directions

  • The last-mile problem: If fintech benefits concentrate among the near-bankable, what interventions reach the truly excluded? Agent banking networks, community-based financial literacy programs, and offline-compatible solutions need rigorous evaluation.
  • Regulatory asymmetry: Strong regulation correlates with better fintech outcomes, but most developing countries face regulatory capacity constraints. How can lightweight regulatory frameworks capture fintech benefits without the institutional infrastructure of advanced economies?
  • Gender-specific barriers: Women's exclusion from fintech benefits is not simply a "digital literacy" problemโ€”it involves cultural norms around financial autonomy, phone ownership patterns, and household decision-making structures. Gender-targeted research designs are needed.
  • Data exploitation risk: As fintech expands in developing countries, so does the collection of granular financial data on vulnerable populations. The relationship between financial inclusion and data protection is underexplored.
  • Long-run effects: Most evidence is cross-sectional or covers short panels. Whether fintech-driven inclusion translates into sustained economic mobility remains an open empirical question.
  • What This Means for Your Research

    The fintech-inclusion narrative is not wrongโ€”it is incomplete. Researchers should resist treating "financial inclusion" as a binary variable and instead examine who gains access, to what services, under what conditions, and with what outcomes. The field needs more disaggregated analysis: by gender, by rural-urban divide, by income quintile, and by type of financial service (payments vs. credit vs. savings vs. insurance).

    Explore related work through ORAA ResearchBrain.

    References (5)

    [1] Azmeh, C., & Al-Raeei, M. (2024). Exploring the dual relationship between fintech and financial inclusion in developing countries and their impact on economic growth: Supplement or substitute? PLOS ONE.
    [2] Mashoene, M., Tweneboah, G., & Schaling, E. (2025). FinTech and financial inclusion in emerging and developing economies: A system GMM model. Cogent Social Sciences.
    [3] Mpofu, F. Y. (2024). Industry 4.0 in Finance, Digital Financial Services and Digital Financial Inclusion in Developing Countries. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues.
    [4] Setyanti, A., Khoiruddin, M. A., & Finuliyah, F. (2025). Rethinking Financial Inclusion in the Digital Age: Determinants of Fintech Adoption in Indonesian Households. NEJESH.
    [5] Khan, N. U., Zeb, F., & Kamal, A. (2025). The Role of Socioeconomic Status in FinTech Adoption and Financial Access. SRA, 3(1).

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