Trend AnalysisEconomics & FinanceExperimental Design

Carbon Pricing Covers a minority of global emissions — a tiny fraction at Paris-Aligned Levels

There are now 75 carbon pricing instruments operating worldwide, generating record revenue in 2024. These instruments—carbon taxes and emissions trading schemes—collectively cover...

By Sean K.S. Shin
This blog summarizes research trends based on published paper abstracts. Specific numbers or findings may contain inaccuracies. For scholarly rigor, always consult the original papers cited in each post.

There are now 75 carbon pricing instruments operating worldwide, generating record revenue in 2024. These instruments—carbon taxes and emissions trading schemes—collectively cover approximately a quarter of global greenhouse gas emissions, depending on the measurement methodology. This sounds like meaningful progress until you examine the price levels: a tiny fraction of covered emissions face a carbon price consistent with what climate models suggest is needed to meet the Paris Agreement targets. The gap between coverage and adequacy defines the current state of carbon pricing policy.

The Research Landscape

Designing Carbon Prices for Paris Alignment

Nesje, Schmidt, and Drupp (2025), writing in Environmental and Resource Economics, directly address the question of how carbon pricing should be designed across different national contexts. Their analysis starts from the fundamental problem: the social cost of carbon—the economic damage caused by an additional ton of CO2 emissions—is estimated at $50–$200 per ton (depending on the model and discount rate), while the global average carbon price in operating schemes is roughly $20 per ton. Most schemes price carbon at levels that are politically feasible rather than climatically adequate.

The authors examine design heterogeneity across jurisdictions and argue that the variation in carbon prices is not simply a matter of political will but reflects genuine differences in economic structure, energy dependence, and institutional capacity. A carbon price that is economically efficient for Norway ($150/ton, given its high GDP and low carbon intensity) would be economically devastating for India ($5/ton may be the politically feasible ceiling given coal dependence and poverty reduction priorities).

Social Cost of Carbon as a Benchmark

Molocchi and Mela (2024) propose using updated social cost of carbon estimates as an international benchmark for driving carbon pricing policies toward Paris-consistent levels by 2050. Their approach addresses a practical problem: different countries use different estimates of the social cost of carbon, leading to incomparable policy ambitions. By establishing a common benchmark—they suggest approximately $80/ton in 2025, rising to $250/ton by 2050—they provide a framework for assessing whether individual countries' carbon prices are on a trajectory consistent with collective climate targets.

The challenge, which the authors acknowledge, is enforcement. There is no international mechanism to compel countries to align domestic carbon prices with any benchmark. The Paris Agreement operates on nationally determined contributions (NDCs), which are voluntary and self-assessed.

EU Emissions Trading: The Most Mature System

Jia, Wen, and Wu (2025), whose study has generated , examine the synergistic effects of combining emissions trading with carbon taxes, using China's system as a case study. Their computable general equilibrium (CGE) model finds that the combination of instruments is more effective than either alone—the ETS provides flexibility for large emitters while the carbon tax captures emissions from sectors too small or diffuse for trading. However, the combined approach requires careful calibration to avoid double-counting and excessive compliance costs for firms subject to both instruments.

The Carbon Border Adjustment Problem

Tanaka and Nagashima (2025) analyze the EU's Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), which imposes carbon-equivalent tariffs on imports from countries with lower carbon prices. This is the first major attempt to address carbon leakage—the problem that stringent domestic carbon pricing can simply shift production (and emissions) to countries with laxer regulations. Their model estimates significant trade impacts, particularly for carbon-intensive exports from China, India, and Turkey, and finds that retaliatory measures could partially offset the environmental benefits.

Critical Analysis: Coverage vs. Adequacy

<
MetricCurrent StateParis-Aligned Target
Global emissions covered by carbon pricingroughly a quartermuch broader coverage needed
Average carbon price (global)~$20/ton$80–150/ton by 2030
Revenue generated$104B (2024)Revenue is secondary to price signal
Schemes with price > $50/ton~10 (mostly European)All major emitting economies
Cross-border adjustment mechanisms1 (EU CBAM, transitional)Coordinated global framework
<
ClaimSourceAssessment
Carbon prices are well below Paris-consistent levelsNesje et al., 2025Supported — broad consensus in the literature
Social cost of carbon should serve as a common benchmarkMolocchi & Mela, 2024Reasonable proposal — enforcement mechanism absent
Combined ETS + carbon tax outperforms either aloneJia et al., 2025Supported — CGE model results, China context
CBAM creates significant trade frictionTanaka & Nagashima, 2025Supported — but welfare effects depend on retaliatory dynamics

Open Questions

  • The coordination problem: Can carbon pricing work without global coordination? If major emitting economies maintain low or no carbon prices, the effectiveness of carbon pricing in smaller economies is limited and the leakage problem remains.
  • CBAM as a model: Will the EU's border adjustment mechanism become a template for other jurisdictions, or will it provoke trade disputes that undermine climate cooperation?
  • Revenue allocation: The tension between climate investment, household compensation, and general government spending for the $104 billion in annual revenue is unresolved in most jurisdictions.
  • Complementary policies: Is carbon pricing sufficient as a primary instrument, or must it be embedded in a broader package of regulations, subsidies, and industrial policy?
  • Where This Stands

    Carbon pricing has moved from theoretical proposal to global practice in two decades—a notable institutional achievement. But the current state is one of widespread adoption at inadequate levels. Covering a minority of emissions at an average price of $20/ton is better than nothing, but the gap to Paris-consistent pricing remains large. Closing that gap requires not just economic design but political strategies that the current literature is only beginning to address.

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    References (6)

    [1] Nesje, F., Schmidt, R. C., & Drupp, M. (2025). Designing Carbon Pricing Policies Across the Globe. Environmental and Resource Economics.
    [2] Molocchi, A., & Mela, G. (2024). Social Cost of Carbon as an International Benchmark to Drive Countries' Carbon Pricing during the Transition. Sustainability, 16(19), 8573.
    [3] Jia, Z.-J., Wen, S., & Wu, R. (2025). Synergistic effect of emission trading scheme and carbon tax: A CGE model-based study in China. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 111, 107699.
    [4] Tanaka, T., & Nagashima, F. (2025). Estimating the embodied carbon emissions and economic impacts of the EU carbon border adjustment mechanism and China's retaliatory measures. Journal of Environmental Management, 378, 126209.
    [5] Du, Q., Ma, M., & Lu, C. (2025). Assessing the impact of emission trading scheme and carbon tax in the building sector: An embodied carbon perspective. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 110, 107732.
    Nii-Okai, E., Yeboah, A., Xonu, E. K., Olayode, A., Osarodion, E. N., Wiafe, G. F. O., et al. (2025). Carbon Pricing and Green Growth: A Systematic Review of Policy Effectiveness, Design, and Equity. Journal of Environment, Climate, and Ecology, 2(2), 173-183.

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