Trend AnalysisEconomics & Finance

Central Bank Digital Currencies: What Do We Actually Know?

Over 130 central banks are exploring CBDCs, but the research base lags far behind policy ambition. Bibliometric analysis reveals that CBDC literature clusters around monetary policy and financial inclusion, while privacy, interoperability, and cross-border implications remain underexplored.

By Sean K.S. Shin
This blog summarizes research trends based on published paper abstracts. Specific numbers or findings may contain inaccuracies. For scholarly rigor, always consult the original papers cited in each post.

By mid-2025, over 130 central banks are exploring or developing central bank digital currencies (CBDCs), according to the Atlantic Council CBDC Tracker. China's e-CNY has processed billions in transactions through pilot programs. The European Central Bank has entered the "preparation phase" for a digital euro. The Federal Reserve has published multiple technical reports without committing to issuance. Nigeria's eNaira, launched in 2021, remains one of the few operational retail CBDCsโ€”with mixed adoption results. The policy momentum is undeniable. The evidence base, however, is thin.

The Research Landscape: A Field Still Defining Itself

Riani & Akbar (2024) provide a bibliometric mapping of CBDC literature that reveals the field's youth and fragmentation. Their analysis of publications indexed in Scopus identifies five thematic clusters:

  • Monetary policy transmission: How would a CBDC alter the central bank's ability to implement interest rate policy, manage inflation, and serve as lender of last resort?
  • Financial inclusion: Can CBDCs extend banking services to unbanked populations, particularly in developing countries?
  • Payment system efficiency: Does a CBDC reduce transaction costs, settlement times, and intermediary dependence?
  • Privacy and surveillance: What are the implications of a state-issued digital currency for financial privacy and government surveillance capacity?
  • Cross-border payments: Can CBDCs simplify international remittances and trade settlement?
  • The bibliometric analysis reveals an important asymmetry: clusters 1โ€“3 are well-populated with research, while clusters 4โ€“5 remain sparse. This matters because privacy and cross-border implications are likely to be among the most consequential aspects of CBDC deploymentโ€”yet they receive relatively little academic attention.

    Monetary Policy Implications

    Sultana (2025), in the most-cited paper in this cohort with 8 citations, reviews the monetary policy implications of CBDC issuance. The central concern is disintermediation: if citizens can hold digital currency directly with the central bank, they may withdraw deposits from commercial banks, reducing the banks' lending capacity and potentially destabilizing the fractional reserve banking system.

    Sultana identifies several design choices that mitigate disintermediation risk:

    • Holding limits: Capping the amount of CBDC any individual can hold (the ECB has proposed a โ‚ฌ3,000 limit for the digital euro).
    • Tiered remuneration: Paying zero or negative interest on CBDC holdings above a threshold, discouraging large-scale deposit migration.
    • Intermediated distribution: Requiring users to access CBDC through commercial bank wallets rather than directly from the central bank, preserving banks' customer relationships.
    Surpiah, Septria & Pravitasari (2025) emphasize the mediating role of financial system stability and the moderating influence of public trust in central banks. Their framework suggests that CBDC's effect on monetary policy depends not only on technical design but on how the public perceives the digital currency. In countries where trust in the central bank is high (Nordic countries, Singapore), CBDC adoption may be smooth. In countries where trust is low (several Latin American and Sub-Saharan African economies), citizens may prefer private cryptocurrency or foreign-currency stablecoins regardless of CBDC availability.

    Pratiwi (2024) examines CBDC volatility effects on monetary policy efficiency, focusing on financial inclusion and investment channels. The analysis suggests that CBDC value stabilityโ€”guaranteed by the central bank's backingโ€”may paradoxically reduce its utility as a monetary policy tool, because a perfectly stable digital currency provides no incentive for holders to adjust their behavior in response to interest rate changes.

    Critical Analysis: Claims and Evidence

    <
    ClaimEvidenceVerdict
    Over 130 central banks are exploring CBDCsAtlantic Council CBDC Tracker, multiple policy reportsโœ… Supported
    CBDCs can improve financial inclusionConceptual arguments + limited pilot evidence (Nigeria, Bahamas)โš ๏ธ Uncertain โ€” pilot results are mixed
    Disintermediation is the primary riskSultana: theoretical analysis with mitigation design optionsโš ๏ธ Uncertain โ€” no large-scale empirical test
    CBDC privacy concerns are well-addressed in the literatureRiani & Akbar bibliometric: privacy cluster is sparseโŒ Refuted โ€” significant research gap
    CBDC will reduce cross-border payment costsLimited empirical evidence; mBridge pilot promising but small-scaleโš ๏ธ Uncertain

    The Implementation Gap

    The most striking feature of the CBDC literature is the distance between theoretical analysis and implementation evidence. Most published research models CBDC effects under stylized assumptions: perfectly rational agents, competitive banking sectors, and well-functioning payment infrastructure. Real-world CBDC deploymentsโ€”Nigeria's eNaira, the Bahamas' Sand Dollar, Jamaica's JAM-DEXโ€”operate in environments characterized by informal economies, limited digital infrastructure, low financial literacy, and complex political dynamics.

    The eNaira experience is instructive: despite aggressive government promotion (including restricting cash withdrawals to incentivize digital adoption), fewer than 1.5% of Nigerian adults had used eNaira as of late 2024, with eNaira representing under 0.5% of currency in circulation and approximately 98.5% of registered wallets remaining inactive. The reasonsโ€”limited merchant acceptance, user interface complexity, and public distrust of government financial surveillanceโ€”are precisely the factors that theoretical models tend to assume away.

    Open Questions and Future Directions

  • Privacy-preserving design: Can zero-knowledge proofs or tiered anonymity systems provide transaction privacy while maintaining anti-money-laundering compliance?
  • Offline functionality: CBDCs must work without internet connectivity to serve financial inclusion goals. What hardware and protocol designs enable secure offline transactions?
  • Interoperability: How should domestic CBDCs interact with each other for cross-border payments? The BIS Innovation Hub's mBridge project offers early lessons.
  • Programmable money: Should CBDCs support programmability (conditional payments, smart contracts)? China's e-CNY has experimented with programmable features, raising questions about government control over how citizens spend money.
  • Coexistence with crypto: How will CBDCs interact with private cryptocurrencies and stablecoins? Will they compete, complement, or crowd out private alternatives?
  • Implications for Researchers and Policymakers

    For central bankers, the evidence counsels caution: the theoretical case for CBDCs is interesting but the implementation evidence is limited, and the few operational deployments suggest that demand-side challenges (user adoption, merchant acceptance, digital literacy) may be more binding than supply-side technical issues. For researchers, the most valuable contribution would be rigorous evaluation of existing CBDC pilotsโ€”studying the eNaira, Sand Dollar, and JAM-DEX experiences with the methodological rigor applied to randomized controlled trials in development economics.

    For the broader fintech community, CBDCs represent both an opportunity and a competitive threat. The design choices made in the next 3โ€“5 yearsโ€”particularly around privacy, programmability, and interoperabilityโ€”will shape the structure of payment systems for decades. Getting these choices right requires evidence that, at present, the academic literature has not yet produced.

    References (4)

    [1] Sultana, A. (2025). Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC). International Journal of Finance & Banking Studies, 14(2), 4049.
    [2] Riani, R. & Akbar, N. (2024). Mapping Central Bank Digital Currency Literature: Lessons for Governments and Research. Journal of Central Banking Law and Institutions, 3(2), 164.
    [3] Pratiwi, E.N. (2024). The Impact of Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) Volatility on Monetary Policy Efficiency in Financial Inclusion and Investment. Journal of Social and Economics Research, 6(2), 659.
    [4] Surpiah, S., Septria, F. & Pravitasari, A. (2025). The Future of Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs): Implications for Monetary Policy. Journal of Accounting, Entrepreneurship, and Financial Technology, 5(1), 6520.

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