Trend AnalysisHistory & Area Studies
Economic History of Inequality: Long-Run Trends from Medieval Wealth to Modern Disparity
Thomas Piketty's "Capital in the Twenty-First Century" (2013) ignited a global conversation about inequality, but the underlying research program, reconstructing wealth and income distributions over c...
By Sean K.S. Shin
This blog summarizes research trends based on published paper abstracts. Specific numbers or findings may contain inaccuracies. For scholarly rigor, always consult the original papers cited in each post.
Why It Matters
Thomas Piketty's "Capital in the Twenty-First Century" (2013) ignited a global conversation about inequality, but the underlying research program, reconstructing wealth and income distributions over centuries, has deepened dramatically since then. Economic historians are now building continuous inequality series that stretch from the medieval period to the present, covering not just Western Europe but slave societies, colonial economies, and pre-industrial Asia.
The findings challenge simple narratives. The Kuznets Curve, the idea that inequality first rises and then falls with economic development, is contradicted by long-run data showing multiple cycles of compression and divergence driven by war, plague, policy, and power relations rather than any automatic market logic. Understanding these cycles is essential for evaluating contemporary debates about wealth taxation, universal basic income, and the distributional effects of AI-driven automation.
History reveals that extreme inequality is not a law of nature; it is a product of institutional choices, and it has been reversed before, though usually by catastrophe rather than reform.
The Science
Seven Centuries of Inequality
Alfani (2024) synthesized the most comprehensive long-run overview available, tracing income and wealth inequality from approximately 1300 to the present. The analysis demonstrates that the "Great Leveling" of the 20th century (driven by two world wars, progressive taxation, and welfare states) was historically anomalous. Pre-industrial inequality was persistently high, and the post-1980 resurgence represents a return toward historical norms rather than an aberration.
Slavery and Extreme Inequality
Alfani (2024) produced the first long-run wealth distribution data for the Danish West Indies (1760-1914), revealing "almost perfect inequality" in a slave society where Gini coefficients approached theoretical maximums. Their work tests the hypothesis that slave societies were the most unequal in recorded history and finds supporting evidence, though with important nuances about free populations within these systems.
Plague, War, and Venetian Wealth
Alfani, Di Tullio, and Rรถnnbรคck et al. (2025) analyzed four centuries of wealth inequality in the Republic of Venice, leveraging an unusually rich database of homogeneous measurements. They found that epidemics, particularly the Black Death and subsequent plague outbreaks, were powerful equalizing forces, reducing inequality through demographic collapse and labor scarcity. War, by contrast, had more ambiguous effects depending on who bore the costs.
Power as a Driver
Alfani, Di Tullio, and Fochesato (2025) responded to technology-centered explanations of inequality by emphasizing the role of power relations as a co-equal driver. Drawing on evidence from antiquity to the present, he argues that technological change is always mediated by institutional structures that determine who captures its benefits, making political economy inseparable from economic history.
Long-Run Inequality Drivers
<
| Driver | Effect on Inequality | Historical Example | Mechanism |
|---|
| Plague/Pandemic | Equalizing | Black Scheidel (2024) | Labor scarcity raises wages |
| Major War | Ambiguous/Equalizing | World Wars I & II | Capital destruction, progressive taxation |
| Progressive Taxation | Equalizing | Post-1945 welfare states | Redistribution, public services |
| Colonial Extraction | Disequalizing | Danish West Indies | Enslaved labor, concentrated ownership |
| Financialization | Disequalizing | Post-1980 globally | Capital returns outpace wages (r > g) |
| Technological Change | Ambiguous | Industrial Revolution | Depends on power relations |
What To Watch
The frontier of inequality history is moving beyond the West. Major research programs are reconstructing Gini coefficients for pre-colonial Africa, Mughal India, and Qing China, which will transform our understanding of whether high inequality is a universal feature of complex societies or a specifically European pathology. Methodologically, machine learning is being applied to digitized tax records and cadastral surveys to extract distributional data at unprecedented granularity.
๋ฉด์ฑ
์กฐํญ: ์ด ๊ฒ์๋ฌผ์ ์ ๋ณด ์ ๊ณต ๋ชฉ์ ์ ์ฐ๊ตฌ ๋ํฅ ๊ฐ์์ด๋ค. ํ์ ์ฐ๊ตฌ์์ ์ธ์ฉํ๊ธฐ ์ ์ ๊ตฌ์ฒด์ ์ธ ์ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ, ํต๊ณ ๋ฐ ์ฃผ์ฅ์ ์๋ณธ ๋
ผ๋ฌธ์ ํตํด ๊ฒ์ฆํด์ผ ํ๋ค.
์ค์์ฑ
ํ ๋ง ํผ์ผํฐ์ ใ21์ธ๊ธฐ ์๋ณธใ(2013)์ ๋ถํ๋ฑ์ ๊ดํ ์ ์ธ๊ณ์ ๋
ผ์์ ๋ถ์ ์งํ์ง๋ง, ๊ทธ ๊ธฐ๋ฐ์ด ๋๋ ์ฐ๊ตฌ ํ๋ก๊ทธ๋จ, ์ฆ ์ ์ธ๊ธฐ์ ๊ฑธ์น ๋ถ์ ์๋ ๋ถํฌ์ ์ฌ๊ตฌ์ฑ์ ๊ทธ ์ดํ๋ก ๋น์ฝ์ ์ผ๋ก ์ฌํ๋์๋ค. ๊ฒฝ์ ์ฌํ์๋ค์ ํ์ฌ ์์ ๋ฝ๋ฟ๋ง ์๋๋ผ ๋
ธ์ ์ฌํ, ์๋ฏผ์ง ๊ฒฝ์ , ์ ์ฐ์
ํ ์๋์ ์์์๊น์ง ํฌ๊ดํ๋ฉฐ ์ค์ธ๋ถํฐ ํ์ฌ์ ์ด๋ฅด๋ ์ฐ์์ ์ธ ๋ถํ๋ฑ ์๊ณ์ด์ ๊ตฌ์ถํ๊ณ ์๋ค.
์ด๋ฌํ ์ฐ๊ตฌ ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ค์ ๋จ์ํ ์์ฌ์ ๋์ ํ๋ค. ์ฟ ์ฆ๋ค์ธ ๊ณก์ (Kuznets Curve), ์ฆ ๊ฒฝ์ ๋ฐ์ ์ ๋ฐ๋ผ ๋ถํ๋ฑ์ด ๋จผ์ ์์นํ ํ ํ๋ฝํ๋ค๋ ๊ฐ๋
์ ์๋์ ์ธ ์์ฅ ๋
ผ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ ์๋ ์ ์, ์ญ๋ณ, ์ ์ฑ
, ๊ถ๋ ฅ ๊ด๊ณ์ ์ํด ์ด๋ฐ๋ ๋ค์ค์ ์ธ ์์ถ๊ณผ ํ์ฐ์ ์ํ์ ๋ณด์ฌ์ฃผ๋ ์ฅ๊ธฐ ๋ฐ์ดํฐ์ ์ํด ๋ฐ๋ฐ๋๋ค. ์ด๋ฌํ ์ํ์ ์ดํดํ๋ ๊ฒ์ ๋ถ์ ์ธ, ๋ณดํธ์ ๊ธฐ๋ณธ์๋, AI ๊ธฐ๋ฐ ์๋ํ์ ๋ถ๋ฐฐ์ ํจ๊ณผ์ ๊ดํ ํ๋์ ๋
ผ์๋ฅผ ํ๊ฐํ๋ ๋ฐ ํ์์ ์ด๋ค.
์ญ์ฌ๋ ๊ทน๋จ์ ์ธ ๋ถํ๋ฑ์ด ์์ฐ์ ๋ฒ์น์ด ์๋์ ๋ณด์ฌ์ค๋ค. ๊ทธ๊ฒ์ ์ ๋์ ์ ํ์ ์ฐ๋ฌผ์ด๋ฉฐ, ๋น๋ก ๋๊ฐ ๊ฐํ์ด ์๋ ์ฌ์์ ํตํด์์์ง๋ง ์ด์ ์๋ ์ญ์ ๋ ๋ฐ ์๋ค.
์ฐ๊ตฌ ๋ด์ฉ
7์ธ๊ธฐ์ ๊ฑธ์น ๋ถํ๋ฑ
Alfani(2024)๋ ํ์ฌ๊น์ง ์ด์ฉ ๊ฐ๋ฅํ ๊ฐ์ฅ ํฌ๊ด์ ์ธ ์ฅ๊ธฐ ๊ฐ์๋ฅผ ์ข
ํฉํ์ฌ ์ฝ 1300๋
๋ถํฐ ํ์ฌ๊น์ง ์๋ ๋ฐ ๋ถ์ ๋ถํ๋ฑ์ ์ถ์ ํ์๋ค. ์ด ๋ถ์์ 20์ธ๊ธฐ์ "๋ํ์คํ(Great Leveling)"(๋ ์ฐจ๋ก์ ์ธ๊ณ๋์ , ๋์ง์ธ, ๋ณต์ง๊ตญ๊ฐ์ ์ํด ์ฃผ๋๋)๊ฐ ์ญ์ฌ์ ์ผ๋ก ์ด๋ก์ ์ธ ํ์์ด์์์ ๋ณด์ฌ์ค๋ค. ์ ์ฐ์
ํ ์๋์ ๋ถํ๋ฑ์ ์ง์์ ์ผ๋ก ๋์์ผ๋ฉฐ, 1980๋
์ดํ์ ์ฌ์์น์ ์ดํ์ด ์๋๋ผ ์ญ์ฌ์ ๊ท๋ฒ์ผ๋ก์ ํ๊ท๋ฅผ ๋ํ๋ธ๋ค.
๋
ธ์์ ์ ๊ทน๋จ์ ๋ถํ๋ฑ
Alfani(2024)๋ ๋ด๋งํฌ๋ น ์์ธ๋ ์ ๋(1760~1914)์ ๊ดํ ์ต์ด์ ์ฅ๊ธฐ ๋ถ ๋ถํฌ ๋ฐ์ดํฐ๋ฅผ ์ฐ์ถํ์์ผ๋ฉฐ, ์ง๋ ๊ณ์(Gini coefficient)๊ฐ ์ด๋ก ์ ์ต๋์น์ ๊ทผ์ ํ๋ ๋
ธ์ ์ฌํ์์์ "๊ฑฐ์ ์๋ฒฝํ ๋ถํ๋ฑ"์ ๋ฐํ๋๋ค. ์ด ์ฐ๊ตฌ๋ ๋
ธ์ ์ฌํ๊ฐ ๊ธฐ๋ก๋ ์ญ์ฌ์ ๊ฐ์ฅ ๋ถํ๋ฑํ ์ฌํ์๋ค๋ ๊ฐ์ค์ ๊ฒ์ฆํ๊ณ ์ด๋ฅผ ๋ท๋ฐ์นจํ๋ ์ฆ๊ฑฐ๋ฅผ ์ ์ํ์ง๋ง, ์ด๋ฌํ ์ฒด์ ๋ด ์์ ์ธ๊ตฌ์ ๊ดํ ์ค์ํ ์ธ๋ถ ์ฌํญ๋ ํจ๊ป ๋ค๋ฃฌ๋ค.
์ญ๋ณ, ์ ์, ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ๊ณ ๋ฒ ๋ค์น์์ ๋ถ
Alfani, Di Tullio, Rรถnnbรคck ์ธ(2025)๋ ๋์ง์ ์ธ ์ธก์ ๊ฐ์ผ๋ก ๊ตฌ์ฑ๋ ์ ๋ก์์ด ํ๋ถํ ๋ฐ์ดํฐ๋ฒ ์ด์ค๋ฅผ ํ์ฉํ์ฌ ๋ฒ ๋ค์น์ ๊ณตํ๊ตญ์ 4์ธ๊ธฐ์ ๊ฑธ์น ๋ถ์ ๋ถํ๋ฑ์ ๋ถ์ํ์๋ค. ์ด๋ค์ ์ ์ผ๋ณ, ํนํ ํ์ฌ๋ณ(Black Death)๊ณผ ์ดํ์ ์ญ๋ณ ๋ฐ์์ด ์ธ๊ตฌ ๋ถ๊ดด์ ๋
ธ๋๋ ฅ ๋ถ์กฑ์ ํตํด ๋ถํ๋ฑ์ ๊ฐ์์ํค๋ ๊ฐ๋ ฅํ ํ์คํ ์์ธ์ด์์์ ๋ฐ๊ฒฌํ์๋ค. ๋ฐ๋ฉด ์ ์์ ๋๊ฐ ๊ทธ ๋น์ฉ์ ๋ถ๋ดํ๋๋์ ๋ฐ๋ผ ๋ ๋ชจํธํ ํจ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ๋ํ๋๋ค.
๋์ธ์ผ๋ก์์ ๊ถ๋ ฅ
Alfani, Di Tullio, Fochesato(2025)๋ ๋ถํ๋ฑ์ ๋ํ ๊ธฐ์ ์ค์ฌ์ ์ค๋ช
์ ๋ฐ๋ก ์ ์ ๊ธฐํ๋ฉฐ, ๊ถ๋ ฅ ๊ด๊ณ๋ฅผ ๋๋ฑํ ํต์ฌ ๋์ธ์ผ๋ก ๊ฐ์กฐํ์๋ค. ๊ณ ๋๋ถํฐ ํ์ฌ๊น์ง์ ์ฆ๊ฑฐ๋ฅผ ํ ๋๋ก, ๊ธฐ์ ์ ๋ณํ๋ ํญ์ ๊ทธ ํํ์ ๋๊ฐ ์ทจํ๋์ง๋ฅผ ๊ฒฐ์ ํ๋ ์ ๋์ ๊ตฌ์กฐ์ ์ํด ๋งค๊ฐ๋๊ธฐ ๋๋ฌธ์ ์ ์น๊ฒฝ์ ํ์ ๊ฒฝ์ ์ฌ์ ๋ถ๋ฆฌ๋ ์ ์๋ค๊ณ ์ฃผ์ฅํ๋ค.
์ฅ๊ธฐ์ ๋ถํ๋ฑ ๋์ธ
<
| ๋์ธ | ๋ถํ๋ฑ์ ๋ํ ํจ๊ณผ | ์ญ์ฌ์ ์ฌ๋ก | ๋ฉ์ปค๋์ฆ |
|---|
| ์ญ๋ณ/ํฌ๋ฐ๋ฏน | ํ์คํ | Black Scheidel (2024) | ๋
ธ๋๋ ฅ ๋ถ์กฑ์ผ๋ก ์๊ธ ์์น |
| ๋๊ท๋ชจ ์ ์ | ๋ชจํธ/ํ์คํ | ์ 1ยท2์ฐจ ์ธ๊ณ๋์ | ์๋ณธ ํ๊ดด, ๋์ง์ธ |
| ๋์ง ๊ณผ์ธ | ํ์คํ | 1945๋
์ดํ ๋ณต์ง๊ตญ๊ฐ | ์ฌ๋ถ๋ฐฐ, ๊ณต๊ณต ์๋น์ค |
| ์๋ฏผ์ง ์ํ | ๋ถํ๋ฑ ์ฌํ | ๋ด๋งํฌ๋ น ์์ธ๋ ์ ๋ | ๋
ธ์ ๋
ธ๋, ์ง์ค๋ ์์ ๊ถ |
| ๊ธ์ตํ | ๋ถํ๋ฑ ์ฌํ | 1980๋
์ดํ ์ ์ธ๊ณ | ์๋ณธ ์์ต์ด ์๊ธ ์ํ (r > g) |
| ๊ธฐ์ ๋ณํ | ๋ถ๋ช
ํ | ์ฐ์
ํ๋ช
| ๊ถ๋ ฅ ๊ด๊ณ์ ๋ฐ๋ผ ์์ด |
์ฃผ๋ชฉํ ๋ํฅ
๋ถํ๋ฑ ์ญ์ฌ ์ฐ๊ตฌ์ ์ต์ ์ ์ ์๊ตฌ๋ฅผ ๋์ด ํ์ฅ๋๊ณ ์๋ค. ์ฃผ์ ์ฐ๊ตฌ ํ๋ก๊ทธ๋จ๋ค์ ์๋ฏผ์ง ์ด์ ์ํ๋ฆฌ์นด, ๋ฌด๊ตด ์ธ๋, ์ฒญ๋๋ผ ์ค๊ตญ์ ์ง๋ ๊ณ์๋ฅผ ์ฌ๊ตฌ์ฑํ๊ณ ์์ผ๋ฉฐ, ์ด๋ ๋์ ๋ถํ๋ฑ์ด ๋ณต์กํ ์ฌํ์ ๋ณดํธ์ ํน์ฑ์ธ์ง ์๋๋ฉด ํน์ํ ์ ๋ฝ์ ๋ณ๋ฆฌ์ธ์ง์ ๋ํ ์ฐ๋ฆฌ์ ์ดํด๋ฅผ ๋ณํ์ํฌ ๊ฒ์ด๋ค. ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ๋ก ์ ์ผ๋ก๋ ๋จธ์ ๋ฌ๋(machine learning)์ด ๋์งํธํ๋ ์ธ๊ธ ๊ธฐ๋ก๊ณผ ์ง์ ์กฐ์ฌ ์๋ฃ์ ์ ์ฉ๋์ด ์ ๋ก ์๋ ์ธ๋ฐํจ์ผ๋ก ๋ถ๋ฐฐ ๋ฐ์ดํฐ๋ฅผ ์ถ์ถํ๊ณ ์๋ค.
References (4)
Alfani, G. (2025). Inequality in history: A longโrun view. Journal of Economic Surveys, 39(2), 546-566.
Rรถnnbรคck, K., Galli, S., Theodoridis, D., & Faust Larsen, K. (2026). Almost perfect inequality: long-run evidence on wealth distribution from the Danish West Indies 1760โ1914. Cliometrica, 20(1), 153-184.
Alfani, G., Di Tullio, M., & Fochesato, M. (2025). Wealth inequality and epidemics in the Republic of Venice (1400โ1800). The Economic History Review.
Scheidel, W. (2024). Beyond technology and wages: power and the history of inequality. Oxford Open Economics, 3(Supplement_1), i212-i216.