Trend AnalysisMedicine & Health

T Cell Exhaustion and Immune Evasion: Why Cancers Escape the Immune System

The immune system can recognise and kill cancer cells โ€” that's the basis of immunotherapy's success. Yet most cancers evade immune destruction through a combination of strategies: downregulating antig...

By Sean K.S. Shin
This blog summarizes research trends based on published paper abstracts. Specific numbers or findings may contain inaccuracies. For scholarly rigor, always consult the original papers cited in each post.

The Question

The immune system can recognise and kill cancer cells โ€” that's the basis of immunotherapy's success. Yet most cancers evade immune destruction through a combination of strategies: downregulating antigen presentation (MHC-I loss), recruiting immunosuppressive cells (Tregs, MDSCs), secreting inhibitory factors, and directly exhausting tumour-infiltrating T cells through chronic antigen stimulation and checkpoint engagement. Understanding these evasion mechanisms is critical for developing next-generation immunotherapies that overcome resistance to current checkpoint inhibitors.

Landscape

T. Cao et al. (2024) in Cell, discovered a remarkable metabolic mechanism of immune evasion: cancer cells upregulate SLC6A6-mediated taurine uptake, which transactivates immune checkpoint genes in the tumour microenvironment and directly induces CD8+ T cell exhaustion. This finding links tumour metabolism to immune checkpoint regulation โ€” a previously unrecognised axis that may explain why metabolic reprogramming of the TME is as important as direct checkpoint blockade.

Ahn et al. (2025) reviewed how cancer cell-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) promote immune evasion by carrying PD-L1 on their surface and delivering immunosuppressive molecules (including proteins, RNAs, and other bioactive materials) to immune cells at distant sites. EVs can suppress anti-tumour immunity systemically, not just locally within the TME.

K. Liu et al. (2025) identified USP22 (a deubiquitinase) as a driver of MHC-I silencing through EZH2-mediated epigenetic repression. MHC-I loss is one of the most common mechanisms of checkpoint inhibitor resistance โ€” without MHC-I, CD8+ T cells cannot recognise tumour cells. USP22 inhibition restored MHC-I expression and resensitised tumours to anti-PD-1 therapy.

Hill et al. (2025) identified the Galectin-9/Tim-3 checkpoint axis as a PD-1-independent mechanism of T cell exhaustion in gastric cancer, explaining why some patients fail anti-PD-1 therapy. Targeting Tim-3 in combination with PD-1 may overcome this redundancy.

Key Claims & Evidence

<
ClaimEvidenceVerdict
Tumour metabolic reprogramming drives checkpoint gene expressionSLC6A6/taurine โ†’ checkpoint transactivation โ†’ T cell exhaustion (T. Cao et al. 2024)Major finding; published in Cell with extensive validation
Cancer EVs suppress immunity systemically, not just locallyEV-carried PD-L1 and immunosuppressive molecules (Ahn et al. 2025)Supported; therapeutic EV depletion strategies emerging
USP22 drives MHC-I loss through EZH2 epigenetic silencingUSP22 inhibition restores MHC-I and ICI sensitivity (K. Liu et al. 2025)Demonstrated; potential combination therapy target
Tim-3 is a PD-1-independent exhaustion checkpointGalectin-9/Tim-3 axis operates independently of PD-1 in gastric cancer (Hill et al. 2025)Supported; anti-Tim-3 clinical trials ongoing

Open Questions

  • Targeting exhaustion vs. preventing it: Should therapies aim to reverse existing T cell exhaustion (epigenetic reprogramming), or prevent exhaustion before it occurs (combination checkpoint blockade at treatment initiation)?
  • Progenitor exhausted T cells: A subset of "progenitor" exhausted T cells retains proliferative capacity and responds to checkpoint blockade. Can these progenitors be specifically expanded?
  • MHC-I restoration: If MHC-I loss is epigenetic (not genetic), can epigenetic drugs (EZH2 inhibitors, DNMT inhibitors) restore tumour antigen presentation?
  • Beyond T cells: NK cells and macrophages also contribute to anti-tumour immunity and are also subject to tumour-mediated suppression. Should combination immunotherapy target multiple immune cell types?
  • Referenced Papers

    • [1] Cao, T. et al. (2024). Cancer SLC6A6-mediated taurine uptake induces CD8+ T cell exhaustion. Cell. DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2024.03.011
    • [2] Ahn, M. et al. (2025). Cancer cell-derived EVs for overcoming immunotherapy resistance. Frontiers in Immunology, 16, 1601266. DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2025.1601266
    • [3] Admasu, T. & Yu, J.S. (2025). Overcoming T Cell Senescence and Exhaustion in Cancer Immunotherapy. Aging Cell. DOI: 10.1111/acel.70055
    • [4] Hill, C.N. et al. (2025). Galectin-9/Tim-3 checkpoint axis in gastric cancer. Frontiers in Immunology, 16, 1600792. DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2025.1600792
    • [5] Liu, K. et al. (2025). USP22 drives immune evasion through EZH2-mediated MHC-I silencing. J. Clinical Investigation. DOI: 10.1172/JCI193162

    References (5)

    Cao, T., Zhang, W., Wang, Q., Wang, C., Ma, W., Zhang, C., et al. (2024). Cancer SLC6A6-mediated taurine uptake transactivates immune checkpoint genes and induces exhaustion in CD8+ Tย cells. Cell, 187(9), 2288-2304.e27.
    Ahn, M., Mun, J., Han, Y., & Seo, J. H. (2025). Cancer cell-derived extracellular vesicles: a potential target for overcoming tumor immunotherapy resistance and immune evasion strategies. Frontiers in Immunology, 16.
    Admasu, T. D., & Yu, J. S. (2025). Harnessing Immune Rejuvenation: Advances in Overcoming T Cell Senescence and Exhaustion in Cancer Immunotherapy. Aging Cell, 24(5).
    Hill, C. N., Maita, G., Cabrolier, C., Aros, C., Vega-Letter, A. M., Gonzalez, P., et al. (2025). Galectin-9 and Tim-3 in gastric cancer: a checkpoint axis driving T cell exhaustion and Treg-mediated immunosuppression independently of anti-PD-1 blockade. Frontiers in Immunology, 16.
    Liu, K., Iyer, R., Li, Y., Zhu, J., Cai, Z., Wei, J., et al. (2026). USP22 drives tumor immune evasion and checkpoint blockade resistance through EZH2-mediated epigenetic silencing of MHC-I. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 136(1).

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