Trend AnalysisOther Engineering
Beyond Lithium: Sodium-Ion and Solid-State Batteries for Grid-Scale Storage
Lithium-ion batteries dominate today's energy storage, but lithium's scarcity and cost drive the search for alternatives. Sodium-ion batteries using solid-state electrolytes combine earth-abundant materials with improved safety—but significant materials and manufacturing challenges remain.
By Sean K.S. Shin
This blog summarizes research trends based on published paper abstracts. Specific numbers or findings may contain inaccuracies. For scholarly rigor, always consult the original papers cited in each post.
Lithium-ion batteries have transformed portable electronics, electric vehicles, and increasingly grid-scale energy storage. But lithium is geographically concentrated (Australia, Chile, China dominate production), supply chains are vulnerable to geopolitical disruption, and costs—while declining—remain a barrier for the massive storage capacity needed to support renewable energy grids. Sodium, by contrast, is one of Earth's most abundant elements, available globally, and chemically similar enough to lithium to leverage much of the existing battery knowledge base.
Simultaneously, replacing the flammable liquid electrolytes in conventional batteries with solid-state electrolytes (SSEs) promises improved safety (no leakage, no thermal runaway fires) and potentially higher energy density. The convergence of sodium chemistry with solid-state architecture could yield batteries that are simultaneously safer, cheaper, and adequate for grid-scale storage.
The Research Landscape
NaSICON-Based Solid Electrolytes
Gerbig and Nirschl (2025), with 5 citations, model all-solid-state sodium-ion batteries using NaSICON (Na Super Ionic Conductor) as the solid electrolyte. NaSICON ceramics offer high ionic conductivity at room temperature—approaching that of liquid electrolytes—making them the leading candidate for sodium solid-state batteries.
Their Pseudo-2D (P2D) electrochemical model simulates cell performance under realistic operating conditions, identifying the key bottlenecks: the interface resistance between the ceramic electrolyte and the electrode materials, and the mechanical stresses that develop during cycling as sodium ions move in and out of the electrodes.
The modeling reveals that a polymer-ceramic composite electrolyte (combining a flexible polymer matrix with NaSICON ceramic particles) offers better mechanical properties than pure ceramic while maintaining adequate ionic conductivity—a promising compromise for practical manufacturing.
Halide Solid-State Electrolytes
Li and Du (2025), with 22 citations in ACS Nano, review halide solid-state electrolytes—a newer class of SSE materials (LiCl-based, LiBr-based) that offer exceptional ionic conductivity and electrochemical stability. While this work focuses on lithium systems, the principles are directly transferable to sodium halide SSEs.
Their analysis identifies the key advantage of halide SSEs: they are electrochemically stable against high-voltage cathode materials—a limitation that plagues sulfide and oxide SSEs. This stability enables higher energy density batteries because the cathode can operate at higher voltages without decomposing the electrolyte.
Manufacturing Innovation
Bu, Chen, and Li & Du (2025) present a manufacturing advance: plasma spray deposition of NaSICON electrolyte films. Current methods for producing NaSICON ceramics involve high-temperature sintering, which is energy-intensive and difficult to scale. Plasma spray deposition—a technique borrowed from thermal barrier coating manufacturing—can produce dense, uniform electrolyte films at lower temperatures and higher throughput.
Novel SSE Architectures
Li et al. (2024), with 16 citations in Advanced Materials, demonstrate a fundamentally different SSE approach: organic molecular porous solids with one-dimensional ion migration channels. These materials achieve high ionic conductivity through precisely engineered pore structures that guide ions along predetermined paths—a molecular-level design approach that complements the bulk ceramic approach of NaSICON.
Critical Analysis: Claims and Evidence
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| Claim | Evidence | Verdict |
|---|
| NaSICON-based sodium solid-state batteries are feasible | Gerbig et al.'s P2D modeling | ✅ Supported — modeling identifies viable design space |
| Halide SSEs offer superior electrochemical stability | Li & Du's review of halide chemistry | ✅ Supported — 22 citations |
| Plasma spray can manufacture NaSICON at scale | Bu et al.'s deposition experiments | ⚠️ Uncertain — demonstrated at lab scale; industrial scale untested |
| Molecular porous SSEs achieve high ionic conductivity | Li et al.'s organic SSE demonstration | ✅ Supported — 16 citations, demonstrated in Li-O₂ batteries |
What This Means for Your Research
For battery researchers, the sodium-ion + solid-state combination represents a promising path for grid-scale storage where cost and safety matter more than energy density. For materials scientists, the interface engineering challenge (ceramic electrolyte → electrode) is the most impactful research target.
Explore related work through ORAA ResearchBrain.
Lithium-ion batteries have transformed portable electronics, electric vehicles, and increasingly grid-scale energy storage. But lithium is geographically concentrated (Australia, Chile, China dominate production), supply chains are vulnerable to geopolitical disruption, and costs—while declining—remain a barrier for the massive storage capacity needed to support renewable energy grids. Sodium, by contrast, is one of Earth's most abundant elements, available globally, and chemically similar enough to lithium to leverage much of the existing battery knowledge base.
Simultaneously, replacing the flammable liquid electrolytes in conventional batteries with solid-state electrolytes (SSEs) promises improved safety (no leakage, no thermal runaway fires) and potentially higher energy density. The convergence of sodium chemistry with solid-state architecture could yield batteries that are simultaneously safer, cheaper, and adequate for grid-scale storage.
The Research Landscape
NaSICON-Based Solid Electrolytes
Gerbig and Nirschl (2025), with 5 citations, model all-solid-state sodium-ion batteries using NaSICON (Na Super Ionic Conductor) as the solid electrolyte. NaSICON ceramics offer high ionic conductivity at room temperature—approaching that of liquid electrolytes—making them the leading candidate for sodium solid-state batteries.
Their Pseudo-2D (P2D) electrochemical model simulates cell performance under realistic operating conditions, identifying the key bottlenecks: the interface resistance between the ceramic electrolyte and the electrode materials, and the mechanical stresses that develop during cycling as sodium ions move in and out of the electrodes.
The modeling reveals that a polymer-ceramic composite electrolyte (combining a flexible polymer matrix with NaSICON ceramic particles) offers better mechanical properties than pure ceramic while maintaining adequate ionic conductivity—a promising compromise for practical manufacturing.
Halide Solid-State Electrolytes
Li and Du (2025), with 22 citations in ACS Nano, review halide solid-state electrolytes—a newer class of SSE materials (LiCl-based, LiBr-based) that offer exceptional ionic conductivity and electrochemical stability. While this work focuses on lithium systems, the principles are directly transferable to sodium halide SSEs.
Their analysis identifies the key advantage of halide SSEs: they are electrochemically stable against high-voltage cathode materials—a limitation that plagues sulfide and oxide SSEs. This stability enables higher energy density batteries because the cathode can operate at higher voltages without decomposing the electrolyte.
Manufacturing Innovation
Bu, Chen, and Li & Du (2025) present a manufacturing advance: plasma spray deposition of NaSICON electrolyte films. Current methods for producing NaSICON ceramics involve high-temperature sintering, which is energy-intensive and difficult to scale. Plasma spray deposition—a technique borrowed from thermal barrier coating manufacturing—can produce dense, uniform electrolyte films at lower temperatures and higher throughput.
Novel SSE Architectures
Li et al. (2024), with 16 citations in Advanced Materials, demonstrate a fundamentally different SSE approach: organic molecular porous solids with one-dimensional ion migration channels. These materials achieve high ionic conductivity through precisely engineered pore structures that guide ions along predetermined paths—a molecular-level design approach that complements the bulk ceramic approach of NaSICON.
Critical Analysis: Claims and Evidence
<
| NaSICON-based sodium solid-state batteries are feasible | Gerbig et al.'s P2D modeling | ✅ Supported — modeling identifies viable design space |
| Halide SSEs offer superior electrochemical stability | Li & Du's review of halide chemistry | ✅ Supported — 22 citations |
| Plasma spray can manufacture NaSICON at scale | Bu et al.'s deposition experiments | ⚠️ Uncertain — demonstrated at lab scale; industrial scale untested |
| Molecular porous SSEs achieve high ionic conductivity | Li et al.'s organic SSE demonstration | ✅ Supported — 16 citations, demonstrated in Li-O₂ batteries |
What This Means for Your Research
For battery researchers, the sodium-ion + solid-state combination represents a promising path for grid-scale storage where cost and safety matter more than energy density. For materials scientists, the interface engineering challenge (ceramic electrolyte → electrode) is the most impactful research target.
Explore related work through ORAA ResearchBrain.
References (5)
[1] Gerbig, F., Kühn, J., & Nirschl, H. (2025). Optimizing all-solid-state sodium-ion batteries: Insights from a P2D Model on NaSICON-based polymer-ceramic electrolyte. Energy Reports.
[2] Li, C. & Du, Y. (2025). Building a Better All-Solid-State Lithium-Ion Battery with Halide Solid-State Electrolyte. ACS Nano.
[3] Bu, X.-C., Chen, N., & Luo, X.-T. (2025). Plasma Spray Deposition of Na₃Zr₂Si₂PO₁₂ Electrolyte for High-Performance All-Solid-State Sodium-Ion Battery. Journal of Thermal Spray Technology.
[4] Li, J.-X., Guan, D., & Wang, X. (2024). Highly Stable Organic Molecular Porous Solid Electrolyte with One‐Dimensional Ion Migration Channel for Solid‐State Lithium−Oxygen Battery. Advanced Materials.
Bu, X., Chen, N., Luo, X., & Li, C. (2025). Plasma Spray Deposition of Na3Zr2Si2PO12 Electrolyte for High-Performance All-Solid-State Sodium-Ion Battery. Journal of Thermal Spray Technology, 34(2-3), 495-505.