Trend AnalysisChemistry & Materials

PFAS: Destroying Forever Chemicals in Water

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) — synthetic chemicals with extraordinarily strong C-F bonds — contaminate the drinking water of an estimated 158–176 million Americans (per 2025 EPA data) an...

By Sean K.S. Shin
This blog summarizes research trends based on published paper abstracts. Specific numbers or findings may contain inaccuracies. For scholarly rigor, always consult the original papers cited in each post.

The Question

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) — synthetic chemicals with extraordinarily strong C-F bonds — contaminate the drinking water of an estimated 158–176 million Americans (per 2025 EPA data) and billions globally. Called "forever chemicals" because they resist natural degradation, PFAS are linked to liver damage, cancer, immunosuppression, and developmental toxicity. Current treatment technologies (granular activated carbon, ion exchange resins) can remove PFAS from water but merely transfer them from one medium to another, creating contaminated waste. Can destruction technologies — electrochemical oxidation, supercritical water oxidation, sonochemistry — actually break the C-F bond and mineralize PFAS to fluoride and CO₂?

Landscape

Tshangana et al. (2025) in npj Clean Water, comprehensively reviewed PFAS treatment technologies at full scale, identifying the critical gap between laboratory demonstrations and real-world deployment. Their analysis found that no single technology achieves complete PFAS destruction at the concentrations (ng/L to µg/L) found in drinking water. Concentration (adsorption, foam fractionation) followed by destruction (incineration, electrochemical oxidation) is the emerging two-step paradigm.

Behnami et al. (2024) reviewed biochar adsorbents for PFAS removal — a lower-cost alternative to activated carbon. Biochar derived from agricultural waste can be functionalised with cationic groups to enhance PFAS binding, but regeneration remains challenging because PFAS desorption requires extreme conditions that may degrade the biochar.

Lemay & Bourg (2025) studied PFAS behaviour at the water-air interface, revealing mutual interactions between perfluoroalkyl chains and electrostatic interactions at the water-air interface — insights relevant to understanding PFAS transport in groundwater and potential remediation strategies.

Ezeorba et al. (2024) reviewed emerging eco-friendly remediation technologies, including microbial fuel cells, phytoremediation, photoelectrical cells, and plasma treatment, positioning these novel approaches as complementary to conventional methods such as adsorption and membrane filtration.

Key Claims & Evidence

<
ClaimEvidenceVerdict
No single technology achieves complete PFAS destruction at drinking water concentrationsFull-scale technology review (Tshangana et al. 2025)Confirmed; two-step concentrate-then-destroy is needed
Biochar is a viable lower-cost PFAS adsorbentFunctionalised biochar achieves competitive removal vs. GAC (Behnami et al. 2024)Supported; regeneration and disposal remain challenges
PFAS mutual interactions at the water-air interface affect transportMolecular dynamics simulations reveal perfluoroalkyl chain interactions (Lemay & Bourg 2025)Demonstrated; insights relevant to remediation strategies
Emerging eco-friendly remediation technologies show promiseMicrobial fuel cells, phytoremediation, and plasma treatment reviewed (Ezeorba et al. 2024)Early stage; complementary to conventional methods

Open Questions

  • Short-chain PFAS: As long-chain PFAS (PFOS, PFOA) are phased out, short-chain replacements (GenX, PFBS) are increasing. Are current treatment technologies effective for short-chain PFAS, which are more mobile and harder to adsorb?
  • Regulatory standards: EPA set PFOA and PFOS maximum contaminant levels at 4 ng/L in 2024. Can treatment technologies reliably achieve such low concentrations at affordable cost?
  • Source control: Should policy focus on restricting PFAS use (as the EU proposes with its universal PFAS restriction) rather than treating contaminated water after the fact?
  • Environmental justice: PFAS contamination disproportionately affects communities near military bases, industrial sites, and airports. How should remediation costs be allocated?
  • Referenced Papers

    • [1] Tshangana, C. et al. (2025). Technology status to treat PFAS-contaminated water. npj Clean Water. DOI: 10.1038/s41545-025-00457-3
    • [2] Behnami, A. et al. (2024). Biochar Adsorbent Preparation for PFAS Treatment. Chemosphere. DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142088
    • [3] Lemay, A.C. & Bourg, I.C. (2025). Interactions between PFAS at the Water-Air Interface. Environ. Sci. Technol. DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.4c08285
    • [4] Ezeorba, T. et al. (2024). Eco-friendly technologies for PFAS remediation. Chemosphere. DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.143168
    • [5] Bharti, S. (2025). PFAS in Water Systems: Contamination, Analytical Methods, and Treatment. Water Conservation Science and Engineering. DOI: 10.1007/s41101-025-00415-7

    References (5)

    Tshangana, C. S., Nhlengethwa, S. T., Glass, S., Denison, S., Kuvarega, A. T., Nkambule, T. T. I., et al. (2025). Technology status to treat PFAS-contaminated water and limiting factors for their effective full-scale application. npj Clean Water, 8(1).
    Behnami, A., Pourakbar, M., Ayyar, A. S., Lee, J., Gagnon, G., & Zoroufchi Benis, K. (2024). Treatment of aqueous per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances: A review of biochar adsorbent preparation methods. Chemosphere, 357, 142088.
    Lemay, A. C., & Bourg, I. C. (2025). Interactions between Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) at the Water–Air Interface. Environmental Science & Technology, 59(4), 2201-2210.
    Ezeorba, T. P. C., Okeke, E. S., Nwankwo, C. E., Emencheta, S. C., Enochoghene, A. E., Okeke, V. C., et al. (2024). Emerging eco-friendly technologies for remediation of Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in water and wastewater: A pathway to environmental sustainability. Chemosphere, 364, 143168.
    Bharti, S. (2025). PFAS in Water Systems: A Critical Review on Contamination Pathways, Analytical Methods, and Treatment Technologies. Water Conservation Science and Engineering, 10(2).

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