This blog summarizes research trends based on published paper abstracts. Specific numbers or findings may contain inaccuracies. For scholarly rigor, always consult the original papers cited in each post.
For decades, drug development followed an assumed pipeline: identify a target, screen compounds in cell cultures, test in animal models, then advance to human trials. The failure rate of this pipeline is well-documented β over 90% of drugs that pass preclinical animal testing fail in human trials, often due to toxicity that the animal model did not predict. Organ-on-chip (OoC) platforms and broader microphysiological systems (MPS) offer a fundamentally different approach: test on engineered human tissues from the start.
The regulatory landscape shifted in December 2022 when the FDA Modernization Act 2.0 removed the mandatory requirement for animal testing before human trials, explicitly permitting validated alternatives. This legislative change did not make organ-on-chip systems clinically required β but it removed a legal barrier that had constrained adoption regardless of scientific merit.
The Research Landscape
What an Organ-on-Chip Actually Is
An organ-on-chip is a microfluidic device β typically the size of a USB drive β containing living human cells organized into tissue-like architectures with fluid flow, mechanical forces, and cell-cell interactions that approximate organ-level physiology. Harriot, Ward, and Kim (2024) provide a detailed review of the engineering principles: channels lined with endothelial cells simulate vasculature, epithelial barriers recreate lung or gut surfaces, and mechanical stretching mimics breathing or peristalsis.
The critical distinction from standard cell culture is dimensionality and dynamics. Traditional 2D cultures grow cells as flat monolayers on plastic. OoC platforms support 3D tissue architecture, fluid shear stress, and multi-cell-type interactions that produce drug responses closer to in vivo behavior.
ADMET Applications
Shrimali et al. (2025) review the application of MPS to absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity (ADMET) evaluation β the core pharmacokinetic assessments that determine whether a drug candidate is viable. Key advances include:
Liver-on-chip for hepatotoxicity prediction β the most mature application, with multiple platforms demonstrating improved sensitivity over animal models for detecting drug-induced liver injury (DILI), the leading cause of post-market drug withdrawals.
Kidney-on-chip for nephrotoxicity assessment β proximal tubule models that recapitulate drug transport and toxicity mechanisms with greater fidelity than rodent kidneys.
Multi-organ chips that connect liver, kidney, intestine, and heart compartments through a shared microfluidic circulation, enabling assessment of systemic drug interactions and metabolite-mediated toxicity.
Oncology-Specific Developments
Hendriks (2025) examines MPS applications specifically for oncology drug development, where the failure rate exceeds 95%. Tumor-on-chip platforms incorporate patient-derived cancer cells, immune cells, and stromal components to model the tumor microenvironment β capturing drug resistance mechanisms that monolayer cultures miss entirely.
Patient-Derived Systems
Lee et al. (2025) review the emerging concept of patient-derived MPS (P-MPS), where a patient's own cells are used to create personalized organ-on-chip models. This approach enables precision medicine applications: testing which chemotherapy regimen works best for an individual patient's tumor ex vivo before administering it in vivo.
Critical Analysis
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| Claim | Evidence | Verdict |
|---|
| MPS predict human drug toxicity more accurately than animal models | Multiple retrospective studies show improved sensitivity for DILI and nephrotoxicity | β
Supported for specific organ toxicities β not yet demonstrated across all toxicity types |
| FDA Modernization Act 2.0 enables regulatory acceptance of MPS data | Legislative language explicitly permits non-animal alternatives | β
Supported legally β but FDA qualification of specific MPS platforms is still case-by-case |
| Multi-organ chips can model systemic pharmacokinetics | Proof-of-concept demonstrations connecting 4β10 organ compartments | β οΈ Early stage β scaling, standardization, and reproducibility challenges persist |
| Patient-derived MPS enable personalized drug selection | Small-scale feasibility studies with patient tumor cells | β οΈ Promising but premature β turnaround time and cost limit clinical utility |
| MPS will fully replace animal testing | No regulatory body has eliminated animal testing requirements entirely | β Not in the near term β MPS complement rather than replace animal models currently |
For researchers and pharmaceutical scientists considering MPS adoption, the current landscape includes:
Commercial platforms: Emulate (lung, liver, intestine, kidney chips), CN Bio (liver MPS), TissUse (multi-organ), Hesperos (multi-organ with functional readouts). These offer standardized hardware with varying degrees of biological customization.
Design considerations: Cell source (primary human cells vs. iPSC-derived), culture duration (days vs. weeks), throughput (single-chip vs. plate-based arrays), and readout compatibility (imaging, effluent sampling, electrical measurements).
Validation requirements: Before MPS data can support a regulatory submission, the platform must demonstrate fit-for-purpose qualification β proving that it accurately predicts the specific endpoint it claims to model. This is a platform-by-platform, endpoint-by-endpoint process.
Remaining Limitations
Standardization is the most pressing challenge. Different laboratories running the "same" organ-on-chip with different cell sources, media formulations, and flow rates obtain different results. The International Consortium for Innovation and Quality in Pharmaceutical Development (IQ MPS) is developing qualification frameworks, but consensus protocols are incomplete.
Throughput is a second barrier. High-throughput drug screening tests thousands of compounds per day. Current MPS platforms handle tens to hundreds β adequate for lead optimization but insufficient for primary screening.
Open Questions
Immune system integration: Most MPS lack resident immune cells. Adding functional immune components β critical for immunotherapy testing β remains technically challenging.Aging and disease modeling: Can MPS faithfully model aged or diseased tissues, or do they primarily reflect healthy young-adult biology?Regulatory harmonization: FDA, EMA, and PMDA are developing MPS qualification frameworks independently. International alignment would accelerate adoption.Cost-effectiveness evidence: Demonstrating that MPS reduce overall drug development costs (not just animal testing costs) requires longitudinal industry data that is only now being collected.Gut-brain axis and other inter-organ connections: Modeling complex multi-organ pathways on a chip remains an aspiration rather than a routine capability.Closing
Organ-on-chip platforms have matured from microfluidic engineering demonstrations to commercially available tools with early regulatory recognition. The FDA Modernization Act 2.0 removed the legal requirement for animal testing, creating space for validated MPS data in regulatory submissions. Liver-on-chip and kidney-on-chip applications have the strongest evidence base, while multi-organ and patient-derived systems are advancing rapidly. The technology does not yet replace animal testing wholesale β but it is increasingly recognized as a complementary approach that addresses specific gaps in translational prediction.
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Όλ¬Έμ ν΅ν΄ κ²μ¦ν΄μΌ νλ€.
μ½λ¬Ό μ€ν¬λ¦¬λμ μν Organ-on-Chip: λ―ΈμΈμ리νμ μμ€ν
μ΄ λλ¬Ό λͺ¨λΈμ λ체νλ λ°©λ²
μμ λ
λμ μ μ½ κ°λ°μ μ ν΄μ§ νμ΄νλΌμΈμ λ°λλ€: νμ μ νμΈνκ³ , μΈν¬ λ°°μμμ νν©λ¬Όμ μ€ν¬λ¦¬λν ν, λλ¬Ό λͺ¨λΈμμ μννκ³ , μ΄ν μΈμ²΄ μμμνμΌλ‘ μ§ννλ λ°©μμ΄λ€. μ΄ νμ΄νλΌμΈμ μ€ν¨μ¨μ μ μλ €μ Έ μλ€ β μ μμ λλ¬Ό μ€νμ ν΅κ³Όν μ½λ¬Όμ 90% μ΄μμ΄ μΈμ²΄ μμμνμμ μ€ν¨νλ©°, λλΆλΆ λλ¬Ό λͺ¨λΈμ΄ μμΈ‘νμ§ λͺ»ν λ
μ±μ΄ μμΈμ΄λ€. Organ-on-chip(OoC) νλ«νΌκ³Ό λ λμ κ°λ
μ λ―ΈμΈμ리νμ μμ€ν
(microphysiological systems, MPS)μ κ·Όλ³Έμ μΌλ‘ λ€λ₯Έ μ κ·Ό λ°©μμ μ 곡νλ€: μ²μλΆν° 곡νμ μΌλ‘ μ€κ³λ μΈμ²΄ μ‘°μ§μμ μννλ κ²μ΄λ€.
2022λ
12μ, FDA Modernization Act 2.0μ΄ μΈμ²΄ μμμν μ λλ¬Ό μ€ν μ무 μ건μ νμ§νκ³ κ²μ¦λ λμ λ°©λ²μ μ¬μ©μ λͺ
μμ μΌλ‘ νμ©νλ©΄μ κ·μ νκ²½μ΄ λ³ννμλ€. μ΄ μ
λ²μ λ³νκ° organ-on-chip μμ€ν
μ μμμ μΌλ‘ μ무νν κ²μ μλμ§λ§, κ³Όνμ νλΉμ±κ³Ό 무κ΄νκ² λμ
μ μ νν΄ μ¨ λ²μ μ₯λ²½μ μ κ±°νμλ€.
μ°κ΅¬ νν©
Organ-on-Chipμ΄λ 무μμΈκ°
Organ-on-chipμ λ―ΈμΈμ 체 μ₯μΉ(microfluidic device)λ‘, μΌλ°μ μΌλ‘ USB λλΌμ΄λΈ ν¬κΈ°μ΄λ©°, μ₯κΈ° μμ€μ μ리 κΈ°λ₯μ κ·Όμ νλ μ 체 νλ¦, κΈ°κ³μ ν, μΈν¬ κ° μνΈμμ©μ κ°μΆ μ‘°μ§ μ μ¬ κ΅¬μ‘°λ‘ μ‘°μ§λ μ΄μμλ μΈμ²΄ μΈν¬λ₯Ό ν¬ν¨νλ€. Harriot, Ward, Kim(2024)μ 곡νμ μ리μ λν μμΈν 리뷰λ₯Ό μ 곡νλλ°: λ΄νΌμΈν¬λ‘ λ΄λ²½μ΄ νμ±λ μ±λμ νκ΄μ λͺ¨μ¬νκ³ , μνΌ μ₯λ²½μ ν λλ μ₯ νλ©΄μ μ¬ννλ©°, κΈ°κ³μ μ μ₯(stretching)μ νΈν‘μ΄λ μ°λ μ΄λμ λͺ¨λ°©νλ€.
κΈ°μ‘΄ μΈν¬ λ°°μκ³Όμ ν΅μ¬μ μΈ μ°¨μ΄λ μ°¨μμ±κ³Ό μλμ±μ΄λ€. κΈ°μ‘΄μ 2D λ°°μμ νλΌμ€ν± μμ μΈν¬λ₯Ό λ¨μΈ΅(monolayer)μΌλ‘ νννκ² μ¦μμν¨λ€. OoC νλ«νΌμ 3D μ‘°μ§ κ΅¬μ‘°, μ 체 μ λ¨ μλ ₯(fluid shear stress), λ€μ€ μΈν¬ μ ν κ° μνΈμμ©μ μ§μνμ¬ in vivo λ°μμ λ κ°κΉμ΄ μ½λ¬Ό λ°μμ μ λνλ€.
ADMET μμ©
Shrimali et al.(2025)μ μ½λ¬Ό ν보 λ¬Όμ§μ μ€ν κ°λ₯μ±μ κ²°μ νλ ν΅μ¬ μ½λνμ νκ°μΈ ν‘μ, λΆν¬, λμ¬, λ°°μ€, λ
μ±(absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity, ADMET) νκ°μ MPSλ₯Ό μ μ©ν μ¬λ‘λ₯Ό κ²ν νλ€. μ£Όμ λ°μ μ¬νμ λ€μκ³Ό κ°λ€:
Liver-on-chipμ μ΄μ©ν κ°λ
μ± μμΈ‘ β κ°μ₯ μ±μν μμ© λΆμΌλ‘, μν ν μ½λ¬Ό νμμ μ£Όμ μμΈμΈ μ½λ¬Ό μ λ° κ° μμ(drug-induced liver injury, DILI) κ°μ§μμ λλ¬Ό λͺ¨λΈ λλΉ ν₯μλ λ―Όκ°λλ₯Ό 보μ¬μ£Όλ 볡μμ νλ«νΌμ΄ μ‘΄μ¬νλ€.
Kidney-on-chipμ μ΄μ©ν μ λ
μ± νκ° β μ€μΉλ₯ μ μ₯λ³΄λ€ λμ μΆ©μ€λλ‘ μ½λ¬Ό μμ‘ λ° λ
μ± κΈ°μ μ μ¬ννλ κ·Όμ μΈλ¨κ΄(proximal tubule) λͺ¨λΈμ΄λ€.
곡μ λ―ΈμΈμ 체 μνμ ν΅ν΄ κ°, μ μ₯, μ₯, μ¬μ₯ ꡬνμ μ°κ²°νλ λ€μ€ μ₯κΈ° μΉ©(multi-organ chips)μΌλ‘, μ μ μ½λ¬Ό μνΈμμ© λ° λμ¬μ°λ¬Ό λ§€κ° λ
μ± νκ°λ₯Ό κ°λ₯νκ² νλ€.
μ’
μν νΉν λ°μ
Hendriks(2025)λ μ€ν¨μ¨μ΄ 95%λ₯Ό μ΄κ³Όνλ μ’
μν μ μ½ κ°λ°μ MPSλ₯Ό μ μ©ν μ¬λ‘λ₯Ό κ²ν νλ€. Tumor-on-chip νλ«νΌμ νμ μ λ μμΈν¬, λ©΄μ μΈν¬, κΈ°μ§ κ΅¬μ± μμλ₯Ό ν΅ν©νμ¬ μ’
μ λ―ΈμΈνκ²½(tumor microenvironment)μ λͺ¨λΈλ§νλ©°, λ¨μΈ΅ λ°°μμμλ μ ν ν¬μ°©λμ§ μλ μ½λ¬Ό λ΄μ± κΈ°μ μ μ¬ννλ€.
νμ μ λ μμ€ν
Lee et al.(2025)μ νμ μμ μ μΈν¬λ₯Ό νμ©νμ¬ κ°μΈ λ§μΆ€ν organ-on-chip λͺ¨λΈμ ꡬμΆνλ νμ μ λ MPS(patient-derived MPS, P-MPS)μ μλ‘μ΄ κ°λ
μ κ²ν νλ€. μ΄ μ κ·Ό λ°©μμ μ λ° μλ£ μμ©μ κ°λ₯νκ² νλ€: κ°λ³ νμμ μ’
μμ μ΄λ€ νμννμλ² μλ²μ΄ κ°μ₯ ν¨κ³Όμ μΈμ§ in vivo ν¬μ¬ μ μ ex vivoμμ μννλ κ²μ΄λ€.
λΉνμ λΆμ
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| μ£Όμ₯ | κ·Όκ±° | νμ |
|---|
| MPSλ λλ¬Ό λͺ¨λΈλ³΄λ€ μΈκ° μ½λ¬Ό λ
μ±μ λ μ ννκ² μμΈ‘νλ€ | λ€μμ νν₯μ μ°κ΅¬λ€μ΄ DILI λ° μ λ
μ±μ λν ν₯μλ λ―Όκ°λλ₯Ό 보μ¬μ€λ€ | β
νΉμ μ₯κΈ° λ
μ±μ λν΄μλ μ§μ§λ¨ β λͺ¨λ λ
μ± μ νμ κ±Έμ³ μμ§ μ
μ¦λμ§ μμ |
| FDA Modernization Act 2.0μ MPS λ°μ΄ν°μ κ·μ μΉμΈμ κ°λ₯νκ² νλ€ | λ²λ₯ μ‘°λ¬Έμ΄ λΉλλ¬Ό λμμ λͺ
μμ μΌλ‘ νμ©νλ€ | β
λ²μ μΌλ‘λ μ§μ§λ¨ β κ·Έλ¬λ νΉμ MPS νλ«νΌμ λν FDA μ격 μΈμ μ μ¬μ ν μ¬λ‘λ³λ‘ μ΄λ£¨μ΄μ§λ€ |
| λ€μ€ μ₯κΈ° μΉ©μ μ μ μ½λνμ λͺ¨λΈλ§ν μ μλ€ | 4~10κ° μ₯κΈ° ꡬνμ μ°κ²°νλ κ°λ
μ¦λͺ
μμ°λ€μ΄ μ‘΄μ¬νλ€ | β οΈ μ΄κΈ° λ¨κ³ β νμ₯μ±, νμ€ν, μ¬νμ± λ¬Έμ κ° μ§μλλ€ |
| νμ μ λ MPSλ κ°μΈ λ§μΆ€ν μ½λ¬Ό μ νμ κ°λ₯νκ² νλ€ | νμ μ’
μ μΈν¬λ₯Ό μ΄μ©ν μκ·λͺ¨ νλΉμ± μ°κ΅¬λ€μ΄ μ‘΄μ¬νλ€ | β οΈ μ λ§μ λ°μΌλ μκΈ°μμ‘° β μ²λ¦¬ μμ μκ°κ³Ό λΉμ©μ΄ μμμ νμ©μ μ ννλ€ |
| MPSλ λλ¬Ό μ€νμ μμ ν λ체ν κ²μ΄λ€ | μ΄λ€ κ·μ κΈ°κ΄λ λλ¬Ό μ€ν μ건μ μ λ©΄ νμ§νμ§ μμλ€ | β κ°κΉμ΄ μμΌ λ΄μλ λΆκ° β νμ¬ MPSλ λλ¬Ό λͺ¨λΈμ λ체νκΈ°λ³΄λ€ λ³΄μνλ μν μ νλ€ |
νμ¬ MPS νλ«νΌμ λν μ€μ©μ μλ΄
MPS λμ
μ κ³ λ €νλ μ°κ΅¬μ λ° μ μ½ κ³Όνμλ€μ μν΄, νμ¬μ νκ²½μ λ€μμ ν¬ν¨νλ€:
μμ© νλ«νΌ: Emulate(ν, κ°, μ₯, μ μ₯ μΉ©), CN Bio(κ° MPS), TissUse(λ€μ€ μ₯κΈ°), Hesperos(κΈ°λ₯μ νλ
μ΄ κ°λ₯ν λ€μ€ μ₯κΈ°). μ΄λ€μ λ€μν μμ€μ μλ¬Όνμ λ§μΆ€νκ° κ°λ₯ν νμ€νλ νλμ¨μ΄λ₯Ό μ 곡νλ€.
μ€κ³ κ³ λ €μ¬ν: μΈν¬ 곡κΈμ(μΈκ° 1μ°¨ μΈν¬ λ iPSC μ λ), λ°°μ κΈ°κ°(μΌ λ¨μ λ μ£Ό λ¨μ), μ²λ¦¬λ(λ¨μΌ μΉ© λ νλ μ΄νΈ κΈ°λ° μ΄λ μ΄), νλ
νΈνμ±(μ΄λ―Έμ§, μ μΆμ‘ μνλ§, μ κΈ°μ μΈ‘μ ).
κ²μ¦ μ건: MPS λ°μ΄ν°κ° κ·μ μ μΆμ λ·λ°μΉ¨νκΈ° μν΄μλ, ν΄λΉ νλ«νΌμ΄ λͺ©μ μ ν©μ± μ격 μΈμ μ μ
μ¦ν΄μΌ νλ€ β μ¦, λͺ¨λΈλ§νκ³ μ νλ νΉμ νκ° μ§νλ₯Ό μ νν μμΈ‘νλ€λ κ²μ μ¦λͺ
ν΄μΌ νλ€. μ΄λ νλ«νΌλ³, νκ° μ§νλ³λ‘ μ§νλλ κ³Όμ μ΄λ€.
λ¨μ μλ νκ³μ
νμ€νλ κ°μ₯ μκΈν κ³Όμ μ΄λ€. "λμΌν" μ₯κΈ°-μ¨-μΉ©μ μλ‘ λ€λ₯Έ μΈν¬ 곡κΈμ, λ°°μ§ μ ν, μ μμΌλ‘ μ΄μ©νλ μμ΄ν μ€νμ€λ€μ μλ‘ λ€λ₯Έ κ²°κ³Όλ₯Ό μ»λλ€. μ μ½ κ°λ° νμ λ° νμ§ κ΅μ 컨μμμ(IQ MPS)μ΄ μ격 μΈμ νλ μμν¬λ₯Ό κ°λ°νκ³ μμΌλ, ν©μλ νλ‘ν μ½μ μμ§ μμ±λμ§ μμλ€.
μ²λ¦¬λμ λ λ²μ§Έ μ₯λ²½μ΄λ€. κ³ μ²λ¦¬λ μ½λ¬Ό μ€ν¬λ¦¬λμ ν루μ μμ² κ°μ νν©λ¬Όμ μννλ€. νμ¬ MPS νλ«νΌμ μμμμ μλ°± κ°λ₯Ό μ²λ¦¬ν μ μμ΄ β μ λ λ¬Όμ§ μ΅μ νμλ μ ν©νμ§λ§ 1μ°¨ μ€ν¬λ¦¬λμλ μΆ©λΆνμ§ μλ€.
λ―Έκ²° κ³Όμ
λ©΄μκ³ ν΅ν©: λλΆλΆμ MPSμλ μμ£Ό λ©΄μ μΈν¬κ° μλ€. λ©΄μ μλ² μνμ νμμ μΈ κΈ°λ₯μ λ©΄μ κ΅¬μ± μμλ₯Ό μΆκ°νλ κ²μ κΈ°μ μ μΌλ‘ μ¬μ ν μ΄λ €μ΄ κ³Όμ μ΄λ€.λ
Έν λ° μ§ν λͺ¨λΈλ§: MPSκ° λ
Ένλκ±°λ μ§νμ΄ μλ μ‘°μ§μ μΆ©μ€ν λͺ¨λΈλ§ν μ μλκ°, μλλ©΄ μ£Όλ‘ κ±΄κ°ν μ²λ
μ±μΈμ μλ¬Όνμ λ°μνλκ°?κ·μ μ‘°ν: FDA, EMA, PMDAκ° MPS μ격 μΈμ νλ μμν¬λ₯Ό λ
립μ μΌλ‘ κ°λ°νκ³ μλ€. κ΅μ μ μ ν©μ±μ λμ
μ κ°μνν κ²μ΄λ€.λΉμ© ν¨κ³Ό μ¦κ±°: MPSκ° μ λ°μ μΈ μ μ½ κ°λ° λΉμ©μ μ κ°νλ€λ κ²(λ¨μν λλ¬Ό μ€ν λΉμ©λ§μ΄ μλ)μ μ
μ¦νκΈ° μν΄μλ νμ¬ λ§ μμ§λκΈ° μμν μ’
λ¨μ μ°μ
λ°μ΄ν°κ° νμνλ€.μ₯-λ μΆ λ° κΈ°ν μ₯κΈ° κ° μ°κ²°: μΉ© μμμ 볡μ‘ν λ€μ€ μ₯κΈ° κ²½λ‘λ₯Ό λͺ¨λΈλ§νλ κ²μ μΌμμ μΈ μλμ΄λΌκΈ°λ³΄λ€ μμ§ λ¬μ±ν΄μΌ ν λͺ©νλ‘ λ¨μ μλ€.λ§μΉλ©°
Organ-on-chip νλ«νΌμ λ―ΈμΈμ 체곡νμ μμ§λμ΄λ§ μμ° λ¨κ³μμ μ΄κΈ° κ·μ μΈμ μ λ°μ μμ
μ μΌλ‘ μ΄μ© κ°λ₯ν λκ΅¬λ‘ μ±μνμλ€. FDA Modernization Act 2.0μ λλ¬Ό μ€νμ λν λ²μ μ건μ μ κ±°νμ¬, κ·μ μ μΆ μ κ²μ¦λ MPS λ°μ΄ν°λ₯Ό μν 곡κ°μ λ§λ ¨νμλ€. Liver-on-chip λ° kidney-on-chip μμ© λΆμΌλ κ°μ₯ κ°λ ₯ν κ·Όκ±° κΈ°λ°μ 보μ νκ³ μμΌλ©°, λ€μ€ μ₯κΈ° λ° νμ μ λ μμ€ν
μ λΉ λ₯΄κ² λ°μ νκ³ μλ€. μ΄ κΈ°μ μ μμ§ λλ¬Ό μ€νμ μ λ©΄μ μΌλ‘ λ체νμ§λ λͺ»νμ§λ§, μ€κ° μμΈ‘μ νΉμ 격차λ₯Ό ν΄μνλ 보μμ μ κ·Όλ²μΌλ‘μ μ μ λ μΈμ λ°κ³ μλ€.
References (6)
Han, J. J. (2023). FDA Modernization Act 2.0 allows for alternatives to animal testing. Artificial Organs, 47(3), 449β450.
Harriot, A., Ward, C. W., & Kim, D.-H. (2024). Microphysiological systems to advance human pathophysiology and translational medicine. Journal of Applied Physiology, 137(4), 922β935.
Shrimali, S., Li, D., & Knox, B. (2025). Microphysiological systems as an emerging in vitro approach for ADMET and toxicity evaluation. Drug Metabolism and Disposition, 53, 100187.
Hendriks, H. (2025). Advancing oncology drug development: innovative approaches to enhance success rates while reducing animal testing. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta β Reviews on Cancer, 1880, 189467.
Lee, T., Min, J., & Lee, Y. (2025). The clinical potential of patient-derived microphysiological systems: a narrative review. Journal of the Korean Medical Association.
Han, J. J. (2023). FDA Modernization Act 2.0 allows for alternatives to animal testing. Artificial Organs, 47(3), 449-450.