Trend AnalysisMedicine & Health

mRNA Cancer Vaccines: From COVID Success to Personalised Tumour Immunotherapy

The COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated that mRNA vaccines can be designed, manufactured, and deployed at unprecedented speed. Can this same platform be repurposed for cancer? Unlike infectious disease vac...

By Sean K.S. Shin
This blog summarizes research trends based on published paper abstracts. Specific numbers or findings may contain inaccuracies. For scholarly rigor, always consult the original papers cited in each post.

The Question

The COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated that mRNA vaccines can be designed, manufactured, and deployed at unprecedented speed. Can this same platform be repurposed for cancer? Unlike infectious disease vaccines that target fixed pathogen antigens, cancer vaccines must target neoantigens โ€” mutations unique to each patient's tumour. This requires whole-exome sequencing of each tumour, computational prediction of immunogenic peptides, custom mRNA synthesis, and delivery โ€” all within weeks. Is personalised mRNA cancer vaccination technically and economically feasible at clinical scale?

Landscape

Fan et al. (2024) demonstrated a lipopolyplex-formulated mRNA cancer vaccine that elicited strong neoantigen-specific CD8+ T cell responses and antitumour activity in preclinical models. Their pipeline integrated three components: (1) the SmartNeo algorithm for neoantigen identification from tumour sequencing data, which the authors report outperforms publicly available screening algorithms; (2) LinearDesign for mRNA sequence optimisation (codon usage and secondary-structure stability of the tandem-neoantigen construct); and (3) an LPP (lipopolyplex) delivery vehicle that addresses the low delivery efficiency the authors identify as a key bottleneck limiting in vivo therapeutic efficacy. The vaccine completely prevented tumour development in prophylactic models and, combined with checkpoint inhibitor, further boosted antitumour activity in three syngeneic murine tumour models.

Haghmorad et al. (2025) bridged the infectious disease and oncology mRNA vaccine fields, reviewing shared platform technologies (modified nucleosides, LNP encapsulation, codon optimisation) and divergent requirements. For cancer, the challenge is not just immunogenicity but overcoming tumour-induced immune suppression โ€” the vaccine must generate T cells potent enough to infiltrate a hostile tumour microenvironment.

Fu et al. (2025) proposed an alternative strategy: rather than personalised neoantigen vaccines, they developed a universal anti-tumour mRNA vaccine that harnesses pre-existing "off-the-shelf" immunity to known pathogen antigens (such as hepatitis B surface antigen and SARS-CoV-2 spike protein). The mRNA reprograms tumour cells to express these known antigens, enabling the patient's existing pathogen-specific T cells to attack the tumour โ€” echoing the long-observed phenomenon of spontaneous cancer regression following pathogen infection.

Kong (2025) reviewed how AI is transforming every stage of the pipeline: from MHC-I binding prediction (deep learning models outperforming traditional algorithms) to mRNA sequence optimisation (codon usage, secondary structure) to mRNA vaccine construct and formulation design (including nanoparticle delivery systems).

Key Claims & Evidence

<
ClaimEvidenceVerdict
Lipopolyplex delivery enhances neoantigen vaccine efficacyImproved DC uptake and CD8+ T cell response vs. standard LNP (Fan et al. 2024)Supported in preclinical models
Personalised neoantigen vaccines generate tumour-specific immunityClinical trial data (BioNTech/Moderna) show neoantigen-specific T cell expansionSupported; overall survival benefit still maturing
Universal mRNA cancer vaccines can bypass personalisationOff-the-shelf antigen approach shows antitumour activity (Fu et al. 2025)Promising; effectiveness vs. personalised approach not yet compared head-to-head
AI improves neoantigen prediction accuracyDeep learning models outperform traditional algorithms for MHC binding prediction (Kong 2025)Supported; reduces false-positive neoantigen selection

Open Questions

  • Combination with checkpoint inhibitors: Moderna's V940 (mRNA-4157) + pembrolizumab showed benefit in melanoma in a Phase 2b trial (KEYNOTE-942; Phase 3 confirmation ongoing). Is mRNA vaccination synergistic with all checkpoint inhibitors, or is the combination specific?
  • Solid tumour access: Even if T cells are primed by vaccination, can they infiltrate immunologically "cold" tumours?
  • Manufacturing timeline: Current turnaround from biopsy to personalised vaccine is 4โ€“8 weeks. Can this be compressed to days?
  • Cost and access: At potentially $100,000+ per personalised vaccine course, how will health systems prioritise access?
  • Referenced Papers

    • [1] Fan, T. et al. (2024). Lipopolyplex-formulated mRNA cancer vaccine elicits strong neoantigen-specific T cell responses. Science Advances. DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adn9961
    • [2] Haghmorad, D. et al. (2025). mRNA vaccine platforms: linking infectious disease prevention and cancer immunotherapy. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 13, 1547025. DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2025.1547025
    • [3] Fu, J. et al. (2025). A Universal Strategy of Anti-Tumor mRNA Vaccine by Harnessing Off-the-Shelf Immunity. Adv. Sci. DOI: 10.1002/advs.202401287
    • [4] Kong, H. (2025). Advances in Personalized Cancer Vaccine Development: AI Applications. BioChem, 5(2), 5. DOI: 10.3390/biochem5020005
    • [5] Aljabali, A.A.A. et al. (2025). Neoantigen vaccines: advancing personalized cancer immunotherapy. Exploration of Immunology. DOI: 10.37349/ei.2025.1003190

    References (5)

    Fan, T., Xu, C., Wu, J., Cai, Y., Cao, W., Shen, H., et al. (2024). Lipopolyplex-formulated mRNA cancer vaccine elicits strong neoantigen-specific T cell responses and antitumor activity. Science Advances, 10(41).
    Haghmorad, D., Eslami, M., Orooji, N., Halabitska, I., Kamyshna, I., Kamyshnyi, O., et al. (2025). mRNA vaccine platforms: linking infectious disease prevention and cancer immunotherapy. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 13.
    Fu, J., Wu, S., Bao, N., Wu, L., Qu, H., Wang, Z., et al. (2025). A Universal Strategy of Antiโ€Tumor mRNA Vaccine by Harnessing โ€œOffโ€theโ€Shelfโ€ Immunity. Advanced Science, 12(8).
    Kong, H. (2025). Advances in Personalized Cancer Vaccine Development: AI Applications from Neoantigen Discovery to mRNA Formulation. BioChem, 5(2), 5.
    Aljabali, A. A. A., Hamzat, Y., Alqudah, A., & Alzoubi, L. (2025). Neoantigen vaccines: advancing personalized cancer immunotherapy. Exploration of Immunology, 5.

    Explore this topic deeper

    Search 290M+ papers, detect research gaps, and find what hasn't been studied yet.

    Click to remove unwanted keywords

    Search 8 keywords โ†’