Communication & Media

The Health Infodemic: When Social Media Misinformation Becomes a Public Health Emergency

Health misinformation on social media has moved beyond COVID-19 to threaten decades of progress in polio eradication, routine childhood vaccination, and public trust in health systems. Five papers across Pakistan, Ethiopia, Romania, and Brazil reveal that the infodemic is structural, not episodic.

By Sean K.S. Shin
This blog summarizes research trends based on published paper abstracts. Specific numbers or findings may contain inaccuracies. For scholarly rigor, always consult the original papers cited in each post.

The word "infodemic"โ€”originally coined by foreign policy columnist David Rothkopf in a 2003 Washington Post article during the SARS outbreak and later adopted by the WHO during the COVID-19 pandemic to describe the excessive spread of information, including misinformation, that hampers public health responseโ€”was initially treated as a pandemic-specific phenomenon. As vaccination campaigns wound down and COVID restrictions ended, many assumed the infodemic would subside with the pandemic that spawned it.

It has not. Health misinformation on social media has proven to be structural rather than episodic. Anti-vaccine narratives have expanded from COVID-19 to routine childhood vaccination. Misinformation about polio vaccines has derailed eradication campaigns in Pakistan. Traditional medicine myths in Ethiopia have delayed treatment-seeking for preventable diseases. And the institutional mistrust that COVID-19 misinformation both reflected and deepened shows no signs of abating.

The Research Landscape

Luo, Mohamad, and Azlan (2025) provide a bibliometric analysis of 1,462 Scopus publications from 2014 to 2024 on social media integration into health communication practices. The analysis identifies research hotspots and maps the evolutionary path of this interdisciplinary field.

The bibliometric findings reveal that health misinformation research has grown exponentially since 2020, with the COVID-19 pandemic serving as a catalyst. However, the research base is geographically concentrated: the United States is overwhelmingly dominant, producing 50.48% of total publications, while China and Australia are emerging steadily. The Global Southโ€”where health misinformation's consequences are often most severeโ€”remains underrepresented in the scholarly literature.

The interdisciplinary nature of the field is evident: contributions come from public health, communication studies, computer science (detection algorithms), psychology (belief formation), and political science (trust and governance). This diversity is a strength but also creates fragmentation, with different disciplines using different methods, different theoretical frameworks, and different outcome measures.

Polio: When Misinformation Reverses Eradication

Ittefaq, Kamboh, and Zelaya (2024) examine polio vaccine misinformation on social media in Pakistan. On April 22, 2019, false rumors regarding the side effects of the polio vaccine quickly spread across Facebook, Twitter (now X), WhatsApp, and YouTube. This rapid spread of misinformation had a detrimental impact on Pakistan's efforts to eradicate polio.

The Pakistan case is consequential because the country is one of only two in the world (along with Afghanistan) where polio remains endemic. Vaccine misinformation does not merely reduce vaccination ratesโ€”it directly threatens the success of a global eradication program that has been running for over three decades and has reduced polio cases by over 99%.

The social media dynamics in Pakistan are distinctive because WhatsAppโ€”an encrypted, closed-group messaging platformโ€”is the primary vector for misinformation. Unlike Facebook or Twitter, where misinformation can be flagged, fact-checked, and labeled, WhatsApp misinformation circulates in private groups where it is invisible to public health authorities and resistant to correction.

Ethiopia: Cultural and Religious Dimensions

Berhe, Jara, and Kifle (2025) examine health misinformation in Ethiopia, where cultural beliefs, religious influences, and the expansion of digital media contribute to myths that fuel vaccine hesitancy, stigma, and delayed health-seeking behavior.

The Ethiopian context illustrates how health misinformation interacts with pre-existing cultural frameworks:

  • Traditional medicine narratives: Claims that traditional healers can cure diseases that biomedicine cannot provide alternative authority structures that undermine public health messaging.
  • Religious framing: Misinformation that frames vaccination as incompatible with religious belief (whether Christian, Muslim, or traditional) weaponizes faith communities as vectors for anti-vaccine messaging.
  • Stigma amplification: Misinformation about HIV/AIDS, mental illness, and other stigmatized conditions reinforces social norms that prevent treatment-seekingโ€”a mechanism that operates independently of social media but is amplified by it.
The paper argues that addressing health misinformation in Ethiopia requires not just media literacy but engagement with the cultural and religious leaders who shape health-related beliefs. Public health communication that dismisses traditional knowledge systems will fail; communication that engages with themโ€”respectfully and from withinโ€”has better prospects.

Romania: The COVID-19 Legacy

Dascalu, Raiu, and Olteanu (2025) present Romania's COVID-19 vaccination campaign as a case study on the intersection of public health policy, societal dynamics, and political influences. Despite an initially promising rollout, Romania ultimately achieved one of the lowest vaccination rates in the European Union.

The Romanian case illustrates the "deadly triple M" of health misinformation: Mistrust (in government institutions, pharmaceutical companies, and health authorities), Misinformation (anti-vaccine narratives circulating on social media and amplified by some political actors), and Missed Opportunities (public health communication that failed to build trust and counter misinformation effectively).

The legacy extends beyond COVID-19. Romania's experience has reduced public trust in health institutions broadly, affecting willingness to accept routine vaccinations and public health interventions. The infodemic's damage is not limited to the specific false claims it promotes; it corrodes the institutional trust on which all public health depends.

Brazil: Mapping the Anti-Vaccine Ecosystem

Cardenuto, Monari, and Lopes (2026) document the anti-vaccine information ecosystem on Telegram in Brazil from 2020 to 2025. Over the past decade, Brazil has experienced a decline in vaccination coverage, reversing decades of public health progress achieved through the National Immunization Program.

The paper contributes a dataset of anti-vaccine content from Telegramโ€”a platform that has become a primary channel for misinformation in Brazil due to its large group sizes, minimal moderation, and encryption features. The dataset reveals that anti-vaccine messaging on Telegram is not random but organized: coordinated groups share content simultaneously, cross-reference each other's claims, and adapt their narratives to current events.

Claims and Evidence

<
ClaimEvidenceVerdict
Health misinformation on social media is a structural, not episodic, phenomenonAll five papers document persistent misinformation across diseases and regionsโœ… Supported
Encrypted messaging platforms are primary vectors for health misinformation in the Global SouthIttefaq et al. (2024): WhatsApp in Pakistan; Cardenuto et al. (2026): Telegram in Brazilโœ… Supported
Cultural and religious factors mediate misinformation impactBerhe et al. (2025): Ethiopia case demonstrates cultural framework interactionโœ… Supported
COVID-19 misinformation has long-term effects on institutional trustDascalu et al. (2025): Romania's vaccination hesitancy extends beyond COVID-19โœ… Supported
Current fact-checking approaches adequately counter health misinformationNo study supports this claim; encrypted platforms make fact-checking impossibleโŒ Refuted

Open Questions

  • Can health misinformation be addressed without restricting freedom of expression? The tension between public health protection and free speech is acute in democracies. Are there interventions that reduce misinformation's impact without censorship?
  • How should health communication engage with traditional and religious authority? Dismissing alternative health beliefs alienates communities. Co-opting them raises ethical concerns. Is there a principled middle path?
  • What role should social media platforms play in health misinformation? Platform responsibility for health misinformation is contested: should platforms actively suppress health misinformation, or would this create precedents for broader content control?
  • Can AI tools detect health misinformation at scale? NLP-based detection systems show promise but face challenges with multimodal content (videos, voice messages), low-resource languages, and the adaptive strategies of misinformation producers.
  • Implications

    The health infodemic is a communication problem with public health consequences. Addressing it requires collaboration between communication scholars (who understand how misinformation spreads), public health professionals (who understand its health consequences), technologists (who can build detection and intervention tools), and cultural mediators (who can translate health messages into locally resonant forms).

    The evidence reviewed here suggests that no single interventionโ€”fact-checking, media literacy, platform moderation, or counter-messagingโ€”is sufficient alone. Effective responses must be multi-modal, culturally adapted, platform-specific, and sustained over time. The infodemic is not going away; the infrastructure to manage it must become permanent.

    References (6)

    [1] Luo, Y., Mohamad, E., & Azlan, A. (2025). Mapping Research Trends in Social Media Integration into Health Communication Practices: A Bibliometric Analysis. Studies in Media and Communication, 13(3), 7748.
    [2] Ittefaq, M., Kamboh, S.A., Zelaya, C.M., & Arif, R. (2024). Polio Vaccine Misinformation on Social Media: Challenges, Efforts, and Recommendations. JCOM, 23(1), 0401.
    [3] Berhe, T., Jara, D., & Kifle, D. (2025). Health Misinformation in Ethiopia: Myths, Media Dynamics, Public Response, and Policy Implications: A Narrative Review. Public Health, 70181.
    [4] Dascalu, S., Raiu, C.V., Olteanu, E., et al. (2025). The Deadly Triple M: Understanding Romania's COVID-19 Vaccination Campaign and Its Lasting Impact on Public Health. Frontiers in Public Health, 13, 1631799.
    [5] Cardenuto, J.P., Monari, A.C., & Lopes, M. (2026). Brazilian Social Media Anti-vaccine Information Disorder Dataset - Telegram (2020-2025). arXiv:2601.18622.
    Dascalu, S., Raiu, C. V., Olteanu, E., Comanici, A. V., Comanici, M. M., Toma, T. P., et al. (2025). The deadly triple M (mistrust, misinformation, and missed opportunities): understanding Romaniaโ€™s COVID-19 vaccination campaign and its lasting impact on public health. Frontiers in Public Health, 13.

    Explore this topic deeper

    Search 290M+ papers, detect research gaps, and find what hasn't been studied yet.

    Click to remove unwanted keywords

    Search 8 keywords โ†’