Critical ReviewLinguistics & NLP

Politeness Across Cultures: How Speech Acts Reveal Hidden Norms

Brown and Levinson's politeness theory claimed universality, but four decades of cross-cultural research have revealed deep cultural variation. Recent studies from Thai, Chinese, Malaysian, Indonesian, and Russian contexts show that what counts as 'polite' is inseparable from what counts as 'proper emotion.'

By Sean K.S. Shin
This blog summarizes research trends based on published paper abstracts. Specific numbers or findings may contain inaccuracies. For scholarly rigor, always consult the original papers cited in each post.

When you decline an invitation, how you say "no" reveals as much about your culture as the refusal itself. In some traditions, a direct "no" is efficient and respectful; in others, it is blunt to the point of offense. Brown and the researchers' politeness theory proposed a universal framework: all humans have "face"โ€”a public self-image that can be threatened by certain speech actsโ€”and all languages provide strategies for mitigating these threats. Nearly four decades later, the framework remains influential, but cross-cultural research has exposed both its enduring insights and its limitations.

The Research Landscape: Universality Under Pressure

The central tension in politeness research is between universalist and culturally relativist positions. Brown and Levinson argued that the basic mechanismsโ€”positive face (the desire to be approved of) and negative face (the desire not to be imposed upon)โ€”are universal, even if the specific strategies vary. Critics, particularly from East Asian and collectivist cultural traditions, have argued that the framework's Western, individualist assumptions distort the analysis of politeness in cultures where face is more relational than individual.

Recent work does not resolve this tension so much as demonstrate its productivity. Each of the papers reviewed here finds that some aspects of politeness behavior are cross-culturally robust while others are deeply culturally specific. The interesting question is where the boundary falls.

Emotive Politeness: The Missing Dimension

Larina (2025), with 2 citations, introduces the concept of "emotive politeness"โ€”the emotional dimension of face-threatening speech acts that Brown and Levinson's original framework largely ignores. Her argument is that the discursive turn in politeness research (which expanded the scope from speaker strategies to include the hearer and context) needs to go further by incorporating the emotional dimension of interaction.

Drawing on data from Russian, English, and several other languages, Larina shows that the same speech act (e.g., a complaint, a refusal, or a compliment) is evaluated differently depending not just on its propositional content or its politeness strategy, but on the emotional stance with which it is delivered. In Russian communicative culture, displays of strong emotion can function as markers of sincerity and intimacy, making what would be considered an aggressive speech act in English into a marker of close relationship. Conversely, the emotional neutrality that Anglo-Saxon politeness norms prescribe can be perceived as coldness or insincerity in Russian contexts.

This finding has theoretical implications: it suggests that "face" is not just a cognitive construct (a self-image that can be threatened) but an affective one (a feeling state that speech acts can modulate). Incorporating the emotive dimension into politeness theory requires rethinking what constitutes a face threatโ€”it may not be the propositional content of the speech act but its emotional valence.

Digital Discourse as a New Arena

Maiklad and Numtong (2025), with 1 citation, take the analysis into digital discourse by comparing politeness strategies in YouTube interviews hosted by Thai and Chinese speakers communicating in English. The study analyzes ten interviewsโ€”five from Thailand's KND Studio and five from China's ICONโ€”examining how cultural norms shape English-language interaction in an informal digital format.

The findings reveal systematic differences. Thai hosts tend to use more indirect strategies, hedging questions and providing extended pre-sequences before potentially face-threatening inquiries. Chinese hosts, in this sample, are more direct but employ humor as a mitigating strategyโ€”softening potentially intrusive questions through laughter and playful framing.

What makes the study methodologically interesting is the context: both Thai and Chinese hosts are speaking English, yet their politeness strategies reflect Thai and Chinese norms rather than English-language norms. This suggests that pragmatic competence in a second language may lag behind grammatical competenceโ€”speakers can produce grammatically correct English while deploying culturally non-English pragmatic strategies. For intercultural communication, this has practical implications: misunderstandings may arise not from what is said but from how it is said.

Refusal Strategies: China-Malaysia Comparison

Yan and Bidin (2025) examine how Chinese and Malaysian undergraduates perform the speech act of refusalโ€”one of the most face-threatening acts in any culture. Using written discourse completion tasks, they compare the strategies used by Chinese Business English majors and Malaysian Applied Linguistics students when refusing invitations, requests, offers, and suggestions.

Both groups prefer indirect refusal strategies over direct onesโ€”consistent with the general finding that refusal is face-threatening across cultures. But the type of indirectness differs: Chinese participants more frequently use reason-giving ("I have a prior commitment"), while Malaysian participants more frequently use hedging and postponement ("Let me think about it"). Chinese participants also show greater sensitivity to the social status of the interlocutor, producing more elaborate refusals to higher-status addressees.

These differences are consistent with broader cultural observations: Chinese communicative culture emphasizes ็ป™้ขๅญ (giving face) through explanatory justification, while Malaysian culture (influenced by Malay concepts of budi bahasa and sopan santun) emphasizes non-confrontation through temporal deferral.

Challenging Universality: The Kabhanti Case

Lufini (2025) provides the most culturally specific study in this cohort, analyzing face-threatening acts in Kabhantiโ€”a traditional dialogic poetic performance of the Muna people in Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia. Kabhanti involves competitive exchange of satirical verses between performers, with audiences evaluating both the sharpness of the satire and the skill with which face-threatening content is expressed.

What is remarkable about Kabhanti is that it systematically violates Brown and Levinson's predictions: performers deliberately produce face-threatening acts (mockery, insult, challenge) that the theory predicts should be avoided or heavily mitigated. Yet Kabhanti is a valued cultural practice, and skilled performers are respected rather than sanctioned.

Lufini argues that this is not a counterexample to politeness theory but a demonstration that "face" operates differently in performative versus ordinary discourse. In Kabhanti, face threats are understood as displays of linguistic virtuosity, not personal attacks. The audience evaluates the form (poetic skill, wit, timing) rather than the content (the insult itself). This suggests that the relationship between speech act and face threat is mediated by genreโ€”a dimension that politeness theory has not adequately theorized.

Critical Analysis: Claims and Evidence

<
ClaimEvidenceVerdict
Emotional stance is a relevant dimension of politenessLarina's cross-cultural data on emotive politenessโœ… Supported โ€” emotion modulates face-threat evaluation
L2 speakers carry L1 pragmatic norms into the target languageMaiklad & Numtong's Thai-Chinese YouTube comparisonโœ… Supported โ€” pragmatic transfer is evident
Refusal strategies vary systematically across culturesYan & Bidin's China-Malaysia comparisonโœ… Supported โ€” but with important commonalities (indirect preference)
Face-threatening acts can be licensed by genre conventionsLufini's analysis of Kabhanti performanceโœ… Supported โ€” genre mediates the face-threat evaluation
Brown & Levinson's framework is universally applicableCumulative cross-cultural evidenceโš ๏ธ Uncertain โ€” the basic concepts (face, strategies) are useful but require cultural specification

Open Questions and Future Directions

  • Digital pragmatics: How do politeness norms transfer to text-based communication (chat, email, social media)? Preliminary evidence suggests that reduced contextual cues lead to both more direct communication and more frequent pragmatic misunderstanding.
  • Multimodal politeness: Larina's emphasis on emotion highlights that politeness is not just verbal but prosodic, gestural, and facial. Multimodal analysis is needed.
  • Global English pragmatics: As English becomes the lingua franca for international communication, whose pragmatic norms govern? The Thai-Chinese comparison suggests that L1 norms persist, but this may change as "English pragmatic norms" become more widely taught.
  • Genre and register effects: Lufini's Kabhanti study opens a broader question about how genre conventions modulate politeness. Does social media constitute a "genre" with its own face rules?
  • Power asymmetries: Yan and Bidin's finding about status sensitivity in Chinese refusals connects to broader questions about how politeness intersects with power. In highly hierarchical societies, is politeness primarily about face, or primarily about power?
  • What This Means for Your Research

    For pragmaticians, these papers collectively argue for enriching Brown and Levinson's framework rather than abandoning it. The core concepts remain useful, but they need supplementation with emotive, cultural, and genre-specific dimensions.

    For intercultural communication researchers and practitioners, the persistent finding that L2 speakers carry L1 pragmatic norms is practically important. Language teaching that focuses only on grammar and vocabulary without pragmatic training produces speakers who are grammatically competent but pragmatically foreign.

    Explore related work through ORAA ResearchBrain.

    References (4)

    [1] Larina, T.V. (2025). Emotive politeness in face-threatening speech acts: cross-cultural perspectives. Baltic Accent, 16(2), 7.
    [2] Maiklad, C. & Numtong, K. (2025). Politeness and Speech Acts in Cross-Cultural YouTube Interview Discourse: A Comparative Study of Thai and Chinese Hosts and Guests.
    [3] Yan, G. & Bidin, S. (2025). Refusal Strategies and Face Concerns: A Cross-Cultural Study of Chinese and Malaysian Undergraduates. Forum for Linguistic Studies, 7(10).
    [4] Lufini, A.W.W. (2025). Politeness Beyond Universality: Face-Threatening Acts and Cultural Symbolism in Muna Kabhanti. Jurnal Pendidikan dan Dakwah Rahmatan, 6(1).

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