Education

Is a College Degree Still Worth It? โ€” The ROI Debate in 2025

The college wage premium persists but is declining at the margins. A study of 5.8 million graduates finds significant variation in internal rates of return across majors, with engineering and health degrees holding strong while humanities and education face narrowing premiums. The answer to 'is college worth it?' increasingly depends on which college and which major.

By ORAA Research
This blog summarizes research trends based on published paper abstracts. Specific numbers or findings may contain inaccuracies. For scholarly rigor, always consult the original papers cited in each post.

The question of whether a college degree is "worth it" has become one of the most contested issues in education policy. On one side, economists point to the persistent college wage premiumโ€”the consistent finding that bachelor's degree holders earn significantly more over their lifetimes than high school graduates. On the other, skeptics cite rising tuition costs, student debt burdens, the growth of alternative credentials, and high-profile corporate moves toward skills-based hiring.

Both sides are partly right, and the resolution lies in the details. The aggregate college premium remains substantial, but it masks enormous variation by major, institution type, demographic group, and position in the earnings distribution.

What the Data Show

Zhang, Liu, and Hu (2024), published in The American Educational Research Journal, provide one of the most comprehensive recent analyses. Using data from more than 5.8 million high school and college graduates ages 18 to 65 from the American Community Survey (2009โ€“2021), they estimate internal rates of return (IRRs) for ten broad college majors compared with high school completion.

Their findings reveal significant differences across majors. Engineering, computer science, and health professions consistently show strong returns. Education and arts/humanities show narrower premiums. Critically, quantile regression reveals that the IRR is generally higher at the high end of the earnings distributionโ€”meaning that college benefits high earners more than low earners within the same major. This distributional finding complicates the "average return" narrative: the average may be positive while many individual outcomes are not.

Zhang et al. also observe a slight decrease in IRR over the study period, consistent with a flattening and even decline in college wage premiums following the 2008 Great Recession. This trend has not reversed.

The Earnings Premium by Major

Tebaldi, Elmslie, and Gittell (2025), published in The American Economist, corroborate these findings using 2009โ€“2022 ACS microdata. They confirm that bachelor's degrees contribute significantly to higher earnings and that major choice matters substantially. Their additional contributions include showing that the earnings premium follows a bell-shaped curve over a person's lifetimeโ€”peaking in mid-career and declining in later years. This decline is particularly pronounced for women, for whom the wage premium starts decreasing earlier.

They also find that bachelor's degree holders show increased resilience to economic downturns compared to non-degree holders, though this resilience varies by major and gender. During recessions, STEM and business graduates maintain their premium more effectively than humanities graduatesโ€”a finding with implications for the "college as insurance" argument.

<
ClaimEvidenceVerdict
College degree holders earn more on averageBoth studies: persistent wage premiumโœ… Supported
Returns are uniform across majorsZhang et al. (2024): significant variation; some majors show modest returnsโŒ Refuted
College premium is stable over timeZhang et al. (2024): slight decline post-2008โš ๏ธ Declining at margins
College benefits all earners equallyZhang et al. (2024): higher returns at top of earnings distributionโŒ Refuted
Women benefit equally from college premiumTebaldi et al. (2025): premium declines earlier for womenโŒ Refuted

The Massification Problem

Yang (2023) provides an important international perspective through a study of China's higher education expansion using national survey data from 2003 to 2019. The findings are sobering: as tertiary education expanded, the association between college credentials and quality jobs weakened. Recent graduates are more likely to work in informal, non-urban, and non-public sectors, and the college earnings premium has declined. A persistent gap remains between bachelor's and associate degree holders, suggesting that credential hierarchies persist even as overall returns compress.

Yang characterizes this as a potential "winner's curse"โ€”where the expansion of higher education reduces the signaling value of any individual degree. The study argues that labor market flexibility and cohort crowding after expansion explain the dynamic effects of credentials. This is not unique to China; credential inflation is documented across developed and developing economies where tertiary enrollment has grown rapidly.

Beyond Economic Returns

Araki and Li (2025) introduce a different dimension by examining the "happiness return" to higher education over 50 years in the United States. Their causal mediation analysis finds that the relationship between college completion and subjective well-being is mediated by economic benefits but not entirely explained by them. The happiness premium of college has shifted over time, suggesting that the non-economic benefits of higher educationโ€”social networks, cultural capital, cognitive development, civic engagementโ€”may be as important as earnings for overall life satisfaction.

This finding complicates purely economic analyses. If the value of college is partly about life satisfaction and not just earnings, then ROI calculations based solely on wage premiums understate the total return. But it also means that if the non-economic benefits of college can be obtained through other meansโ€”community organizations, self-directed learning, professional networksโ€”the case for college as the exclusive path to a good life weakens.

The Skills-Based Hiring Movement

Corporate announcements about removing degree requirements have attracted significant attention. Several large technology and consulting firms have publicly adopted skills-based hiring policies. However, the empirical evidence on whether these announcements translate into changed hiring behavior is limited. Early analyses suggest that while job postings increasingly omit degree requirements, actual hiring patterns have changed less than the rhetoric implies. Degree holders continue to be preferred in practice, even when postings do not formally require degrees.

Open Questions

The ROI question is ultimately unanswerable in the aggregate because it depends on individual circumstances: which institution, which major, which student, which labor market. The more productive questions may be: For whom does college provide positive returns? Under what conditions do returns justify costs? And what alternatives exist for those for whom traditional degrees do not provide adequate returns?

The policy implications are nuanced. College remains a strong investment for many students, particularly in high-return fields at institutions with manageable costs. But the blanket recommendation that "everyone should go to college" is increasingly untenable as costs rise, returns vary, and alternative pathways develop. A more honest conversation would acknowledge both the real value of higher education and its real limitationsโ€”without either dismissing degrees or treating them as universally necessary.

References (4)

Zhang, L., Liu, X., & Hu, Y. (2024). Degrees of return: Estimating internal rates of return for college majors using quantile regression. American Educational Research Journal.
Tebaldi, E., Elmslie, B., & Gittell, R. (2025). The earnings premium: Major, gender, and double majors in economic cycles. The American Economist.
Yang, P. (2023). The winner's curse? Temporal and spatial impacts of higher education expansion. Studies in Higher Education.
Araki, S., & Li, S. (2025). The shifting happiness return to higher education over 50 years. Higher Education.

Explore this topic deeper

Search 290M+ papers, detect research gaps, and find what hasn't been studied yet.

Click to remove unwanted keywords

Search 7 keywords โ†’